Greek And Roman Mythology Essay

Divine Myth; †¢Ã¢â‚¬Å"True myths† or â€Å"myth proper†. Stories in which the main characters are super natural beings. Generally explain some aspect of the world †¢Example would be Zeus over throwing his father and the related stories; creation of myths and of the ancient greeks †¢Nyx (Night): the abstract concept of night given to a few human characteristics. Union of Nyx and Erebus (Darkness) produced their opposites, aether †Radiance† and herma â€Å"day† Legends (Sagas) †¢Latin word is Legenda â€Å"something that must be read†. Originated referred to Christian Stories of the saints. †¢Stories of great deeds from humans. (Semi-divine), usually narrates the events of the human past †¢Stories of the Trojan war and the exploits of Achilles and the other Greek heroes fit into this category. Troy and Legend †¢Heinrich Schliemann 1822-1890 †¢Believed that Homer’s stories about Troy were based on historical truth †¢Funded archaeological digs at Troy and later at Mycenae †¢Founded a huge horde of gold and jewels, â€Å"Priam’s Treasure† Folktales †¢Stories whose characters are ordinary people or animals; folk takes serve both to entertain and teach or justify. †¢Greeks had a work for folk talk, â€Å"Ainos† (Simple fable) †¢Hesiod Works and Days â€Å"The hawk and the nightingale† Motifs †¢Regular appearance of certain identifiable narrative patterns in a story †¢The modern novel we see the motif of water or light which consistently comes up n the story, serves as a thread running throughout †¢Simple motifs include; double (Twins, doppelgangers); dragons, etc Theories of Myth Allegory †¢Greek word meaning â€Å"say something differently† †¢Similar to symbolism Physical Allegory †¢THEAGENES (6TH CENTURY B. C. ) †¢First use of allegory to interpret myth †¢Myths about battles between gods really represented natural conflicts between natural  causes †¢Based his interpretations on opposites. †¢One god may represent fire and another water. Clashes represent eternal conflicts between fire and water False Etymologies †¢Means getting to the root of a word †¢Cronus (father of Zeus) †¢Greeks tried to relate Cronus to Crono (Time) †¢Cronus eats children (Time devours everything) †¢However Cronus and Crono are not etymologically related words Historical Allegory Euhemerism †¢An interpretation created by Euhemerus (ca 300 B. C. ) †¢Opposed to physical allegory, Euhemerism says myths tell us historical truths not philosophical truthsÃ'Ž †¢Gods are historical figures, human kings ruled long ago and were transformed into stories by gods †¢Related to Euhemerism and false etymologies is the idea that myths were formed by an understanding. †¢Actaeoniane are not torn apart by his dogs, but ruined by spending all his money on hunting dogs The Minoans †¢Ca 2200 B. C. E – ca 1450 B. C. E †¢Elaborate palaces; significant wealth and technology †¢Bull is an important religious symbol †¢Worshipped female fertility goddess †¢No defensive structures- mastery of the sea †¢Non Indo-Europeans †¢Non Greek Speakers (Linear A script not deciphered) Thera (Modern Santorini) †¢A rich Minoan culture that was destroyed ca 1630 BCE The End of the Minoans †¢ca 1450 B. C. E Minoan Civilization was destroyed and palaces burned †¢Palace at Cnossus Mycenaean †¢Ca 1600 B. C. E- 1150 B. C. E †¢Indo-European Greek Speakers (linear B script) †¢Mycenae’s ruled by powerful king †¢Warlike people- Bronze weaponry, chariots. †¢1150 B. C. E, palaces destroyed by fire. Linear B language lost for 400 years until Archeic Period †¢Re-emerged as Greek Alphabets Near Eastern Influence †¢Mesopotamia â€Å"Land between Rivers† (Tigris and Euphrates, modern Iraq) Important source for myths †¢Non Indo-Europeans speaking society. ( linguistic group than the Greeks) †¢Greek myths of the origin of the present world order, a universal flood and other myths show the influence of the near east. †¢Other important peoples that influenced Greek myth; Sumerians, Semites, Akk September 12, 2013 Creation Myths 1: Hesiod’s Theogony †¢Ca. 700 B. C. E †¢2 works survive intact (fragments of some of his other works are extent) †¢About the origin of the universe and the ascension of Zeus to â€Å"kings of the gods† †¢Works and Days: The account of the fall of man from a golden age to one of the iron †¢Elaborated on the personification of various aspects of life. Eg Gaea is the mother nature †¢Gaea is in pain because of Uranos’ hatred of their off spring †¢Uranos imprisons his youngest children to Tartarus †¢Succession myth (Uranos feared that his children would take his power away from him) †¢Gaea encourages Cronus to exact revenge †¢Cronus threw Uranos genitals into the sea, which gave rise to Aphrodite (God of love/sexuality) †¢The Giants (Erinyes, Furies) and Melian ash-tree Nymphs sprang from Uranos spilled blood †¢Cronus warned by Gaea (Mother) and Uranos (Father), would be afraid of their off springs †¢Cronos (Time) and Rhea had ; Zeus, Poseidon (Earth Shaker), Hades, Hera, Demeter, and  Hestia †¢Once born, Cronos eats his children to prevent from being overthrown †¢Rhea, advice from her parents hid her youngest child, Zeus on the island of Crete in a cave. †¢Rhea gave Cronus a stone in place of Zeus’s place †¢Zeus raised in a cave by nymphs and fed milk from the goat Amalthea and the honey from the bee Melissa †¢Protected by the Corybantes (Whirlers)/ Curetes â€Å"young men†Ã'Ž †¢Metis (Cleverness) give Cronus an emetic (causes him to vomit his sons and daughters) †¢The stone become the famous omphalos placed in Delphi (Center of the earth) †¢Rhea and Cronos, and Gaia and Uranus  The Titanomachy (War against the Titans) †¢Titans led by Cronus, Olympians led by Zeus †¢Some of the Cyclopes and the Hecatoncheires (the â€Å"Hundred-handers†) helped Zeus. The Cyclopes fashioned Zeus’s thunderbolt. †¢Eventually the Olympians won †¢Zeus banishes Cronus to Tartarus, along with the other Titans where they are watched by the Hundred-handers †¢The women were neutral, they were not banished. Epimetheus, Prometheus, and Atlas were spared. †¢Atlas’s punishment was that he had to hold up the sky at the edge of the world Typhoesus/Typhons/Typhus †¢Typheous is the youngest son of Tartarus and Gaea  Ã¢â‚¬ ¢He was so terrifying that the Olympian gods fled to Egypt and disguised themselves as animals. †¢In a fierce battle (hurled, torn to sinews) Zeus defeated Typheous- Mt. Etna(Typheous was being held down there) †¢Dragon combat motif (Characteristics where they are born inside the earth) (Dragons represent feminity; Zeus represents masculine values Birth of Athena †¢Zeus escapes the pattern of the succession myth (overthrown) †¢Zeus has married Metis and she was pregnant †¢Zeus swallowed Metis (Assimilated intelligence into himself) †¢Gave him a headache (Cracks his skull into allowing Athena to come out of his head) †¢One of Zeus’s favorite children Gigantomachy †¢Not mentioned by Hesiod †¢Giants were urged to attack Olympus †¢Another test of Zeus’s powers †¢The Olympians defeat the Giants, in a great battle. †¢Zeus, Poseidon and Hades divide the world among themselves †¢Prophecy of the son of a mortal mother; Hercules. (Was the hero Zeus needed to defeat the giants) †¢Giants urged to attack by Gaea Creation Myths 2: The Fall of Man The Punishment of Prometheus †¢Prometheus cultural hero (Gives mortals a chance) †¢Said to be the creator of humans †¢Prometheus tricked Zeus at Mekone unto reserving the edible parts of the sacrifice for humans  Ã¢â‚¬ ¢Gods get the bones and fat †¢Etiology (Explains the reason) Greek sacrificial custom †¢For the trick, Zeus punishes the humans (Withholds the fire) Prometheus and Fire †¢Prometheus steals the fire back from heaven in a fennel-stalk †¢Punishment for this trickery Zeus sends Pandora to men and chains Prometheus, years later freed by Hercules. †¢Prometheus gets a visitation from an eagle every day to peck out his liver Pandora (All gifted) †¢Name means â€Å"all-gifted† because of all the gods contributed to her creation and endowed her with many charms. †¢Hephaestos- Fashions her from the earth †¢Athena- Gives her domestic skills. †¢Aphrodite- gives her grace, beauty, desire and the ability to spark sexual longing †¢Graces and Persuasion: Necklaces †¢Epimetheus (after thought) is told by his brother Prometheus (fore thought) to not accept any gifts from Zeus †¢He sees Pandora and accepts Pandora †¢She carries a JAR ( not a box) †¢In the jar, it contains all the evil and good things †¢When she opens the jar, all the evil things fall to earth while the good things fly to heaven/ †¢Only â€Å"hope† is caught in the jar 4/5 Ages of Men; Hesiod’s Works and Days and Ovid’s Metamorphoses Ovid †¢43 B. C. E – 17 B. C. E †¢Works include Art of Love and the Metamorphoses. †¢Exiled by Augustus Zeus : Father of Gods and Men †¢Derived from the Indo-European Sky God: di-cf. Germanic Tiu and Indic Dyaus Ritar – Roman Jupiter †¢Ã¢â‚¬Å"Cloud Gather† †¢Aegis bearing Zeus – â€Å"Goat Skin† a magical object that represented Zeus power, it often represented as a shield with snake headed tassels. Zeus lent it to Athena †¢Many Lovers: (Eurynome (Graces); Mnemosyne (Muses): Ganymede (cup-bearer to the gods): Themis (rules and order) †¢Many offspring (Sarpedon, Zeus’s Son, Minos’s brother; Moerae â€Å"fates†: Clotho â€Å"spinner†, Lachesis â€Å"apportioner† and Atropos â€Å"she who cannot be turned aside†; Horae â€Å"Seasons†. †¢Zeus is renowned for his physical strength which guarantees his preeminence over all beings †¢Signature weapon which was the Lightning Bolt; Zeus Kataibates – â€Å"Zeus who descends† †¢Zeus is associated with the bull (Crete, power, fertility) and the Eagle †¢God of law and justice Dike- from the root â€Å"to point out† †¢Xenia (Formal guest friendship) cf. Xenophobia †¢As â€Å"The father of gods and men†, Zeus is a figurative father who oversees all that occurs on earth and in the heaven. †¢Literal father to a large number of gods and heroes- famous for his numerous consorts and paramours. 114 at some counts. †¢Sexual procreation as a metaphor for agricultural production- rain; semen, earth- the womb †¢Famous story from IIiad associates Zeus’s exploits and the growth of vegetation – Aphrodite’s girdle/belt (a symbol of sexuality and sexual consent) & Hera’s use of it leads to grasses, flowers and plants springing from the earth on which they reclined. Hera: Who sits on a Golden Throne †¢Hera (Juno) †¢Zeus’s wife †¢Marriage and child birth †¢Mother of Ares (by Zeus), Eileithyia, Hebe(personification of youth) & Hephaestus (Crippled and made fun of ) (Two versions of parentage) †¢Persecutes Zeus’s mistresses and illegitimate children. †¢Quarrels with Zeus incessantly †¢Seduces Zeus to turn tide of the Trojan War – Zeus; â€Å"remember when I strung you up†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Poseidon: Dark-Haired Lord of the Deep †¢God of the sea and earthquakes †¢Associated with the horse (drowned in a pool to sacrifice to Poseidon) †¢Produced Pegasus with the Gorgon Medusa (grotesque offspring: Polyphemus) Hades :Pluto’s â€Å"Wealthy One† †¢Name means â€Å"invisible† – unseen dead and the facelessness of death (Helm of invisilibty) †¢Never willingly allows anyone who comes to his â€Å"house† to leave †¢An immortal god but not an Olympian. Apollo †¢Origin of Apollo unknown; Lycian = Lycia (Asia Minor)? Or association with Hyperborean ( 3 Winters mos. In the far north)= Nordic Origin? †¢Born on Delos ( Floating island – Hera’s persecution of Titaness Leto â€Å"light of day† †¢Artemis is his twin sister †¢Depicted as a physically perfect young man and un-bearded and with long hair. †¢God of music, aristocratic concerns and light (later came to be associated with the sun) †¢God of illness (arrows- â€Å"Lord of mouse†, they bring disease) and healing (Asclepius, his son was the god of medicine) †¢God of prophecy; killed Python to establish his Oracle of Delphi (Dragon-combat: cf. Marduk vs Tiamat and Zeus vs Typhoeus)- shaman. †¢Known for his unhappy loves: Daphine, Cassandra, Sibyl at Cumae, Coronis (Asclepius Mother) Hermes; Psychompus; Mercury (Soul guide, or the leader of the souls) †¢God of travel, commerce, boundaries, theft and trickery (God that was worshipped from the thieves and bandits, and try to trick people) †¢Messenger to the gods (Called quicksilver because he was fast) †¢Important myths: Births, Invention of Lyre( by killing and gutting a Tortoise), Killing of Argus (Monster with 100 hundreds, watcher of 1 of Zeus’s lovers) †¢Worshipped as a Herm at crossroads and even doorways †¢Zeus had an affair with a star, and Hermes was born. Pan †¢Son of Hermes †¢Hoofs and legs of a goat with human features †¢The god’s name is likely from Indo-European root meaning â€Å"to feed† (cf Pasture) †¢The inspiration for later representations of the devil Hephaetus, God of Smiths †¢Lame smith god- highly skilled and ingenious †¢2 versions of his birth: Born from Hera alone (b/c of Athena) or son of Zeus and Hera †¢2 versions of expulsion from Olympus: Zeus threw him off for taking Hera’s side in an argument(landed on Lemnos); or Hera threw him from Olympus in disgust (Hephaetus’ golden throne of revenge and his subsequent return to Olympus) †¢Typhoeus’s jailer in Mt. Etna †¢Husband of Aphrodite (Ares & Aphrodite trapped in bed) â€Å"Hateful† Ares (God of War) Aphrodite, Artemis, and Athena Sept 24 †¢Aphrodite â€Å"Of the Golden Daughty† †¢Goddess of Love †¢Born from sea-foam (ophros)- Hesiod (Roman: Venus †¢Always accompanied by Eros (Winged boy with bow and arrows or flaming torch) Also Himmeros= desire and the Graces) †¢Only Athena, Artemis and Hestia (Virgins for life, did not want to endeavor into Aphrodite’s powers) were immune to Aphrodite’s powers †¢Not originally Greek (cf. Eastern fertility goddesses, Inanna, Ishstar, Astarte)- Cyprus (transit point) â€Å"Cypris† & â€Å"Cythera†. Cyprus is the doorway between the East and the west †¢Temple prostitution (Corinth & Cythera) Important Myths †¢Birth (theogony) †¢Hermaphroditus (fused with Nymph Salmacis, became both genders by fusing with him) †¢Priapus (Dionysus or Hermes)- Boned †¢Aphrodite & Ares-Boned †¢Aphrodite & Anchises (Aeneas; lone survivor of the Trojan War)-Boned Artemis Potnia Theron †¢Mistress of Animals †¢Not a Greek Name- earlier (possibly as far back as the Paleolithic Period) †¢Twin sister of Apollo (Roman: Diana) †¢Virgin goddess, but alluring (dangerous) †¢Huntress (bow and arrows, deer) †¢Ã¢â‚¬Å"Struck by the arrows of Artemis†. †¢Scared animals include the bear – (Braurania ritual and the Arktoi- â€Å"little bear†) Important Myths †¢Iphigenia (Sacrifice) Daughter of the great Greek general †¢Niobe (Boast about having more kids than Leto) Leto ask Apollo and Artemis to honor †¢Orion (constellation) tried to rape Artemis and Artemis put a scorpion on his head and he died. †¢Actaeon (Human Sacrifice? ) Turned into a Stagg because he saw Artemis nude. Then Actaeon’s dogs killed him Athena â€Å"Mistress of the City† †¢Takes her name from the city of Athens ( Not the other way around) †¢Roman: Minerva †¢Associated with the owl (owl-eyed). †¢Often represented with the helmet, shield and spear, wears the Aegis around her shoulders †¢Goddess of war (justified, defensive, strategic) †¢Goddess of domestic crafts ( especially weaving) Important Myths †¢Birth †¢Contest with Poseidon †¢ BIRTH OF ERICHTHONIUS (1ST KING OF ATHENS) HEPHATUS JIZZED ON ATHENA’S HIPS AND SHE wiped it off and she threw it off the ground on Athens and spawned the legendary king Erichthonius, he was snaky because he spawned in the earth †¢Arachne (Athena turned her in a spider) She weaved something that made fun of the gods. Athena slashed her face. She then committed suicide. Athena felt sorry for her  suicide and turned her into a spider September 26, 2013 Demeter †¢Meter means â€Å"mother†, De- unknown meaning †¢Greek Goddess most closely associated with the great mother-goddess †¢Goddess of grain and the harvest †¢Story of Demeter and Persephone comes from the Homeric Hymn to Demeter †¢Close association between the female, the underworld and the cyclical nature of existence †¢Demeter’s daughter by Zeus is Persephone, also known as Kore—Daughter or girl †¢D. and P. are often called â€Å"the two Demeters† or â€Å"the two goddesses†. The rape of Persephone †¢Persephone is taken to the underworld with Zeus’s permission- cf.marriage in ancient Greece †¢Persephone picked flowers as Hades arose from the depths to abduct her †¢Only Hecate and Helius heard her cries †¢Finally, Demeter heard her daughter’s cries and searched the entire earth for her Demeter’s Search †¢Nobody mortal or immortal would tell Demeter what happened †¢She wandered the earth for nine days with torches in her hands †¢Refused to eat ambrosia or drink nectar and did not bathe †¢Hecate finally told Demeter part of the story and then Helius filled in the rest †¢In disguise, Demeter left Olympus and descended to the towns and cities of men where she eventually came to Eleusis (Town outside Athens, center of the Eleusinian Mysteries) The Eleusinian Mysteries †¢At Eleusis, Demeter rested at the â€Å"Well of the Maiden† where she was approached by the daughters of Eleusis’ king Celeus †¢They asked where she was from and offered her hospitality †¢They hired Demeter as a nanny to their mother, Metaneira’s child, Demophoon †¢Lambe tries to entertain Demeter by telling her dirty jokes †¢Metaneira offered Demeter, Kykeon, as barley-drink †¢Demeter tried to repay their kindness by making Demophoon immortal. (Demeter would take the baby and put him in the fire, burning away his mortality). †¢Eventually, Celeus decreed a glorious temple be built in honor of Demeter. Tough Times for Humanity †¢In anger over her daughter’s abduction, Demeter withdrew all agriculture from the earth †¢Zeus demanded that Demeter relent but she refused. †¢Zeus sent Hermes to Hades to convince him to release Persephone and he agreed (etiological myth re: seasons). The Epic of Gilgamesh and Heroic Myth Oct 1 †¢Legends are stories about exceptional humans doing exceptional things which are said to narrate episodes from the human past- heroes. †¢Heroes were noble or well-born, originally living and breathing people-Homeric kings  and warriors. †¢Eventually these great individuals came to be worshipped as powers dwelling beneath the earth †¢The name of places of the individual’s cult where they were worshipped, were called Heroa †¢Heroa were often huge earthen mounds visible on the landscape for great distances eg Achilles at Troy’s Pelops at Olympia and Aenea’s near Rome. The Epic of Gilgamesh and the Heroic Pattern †¢Few ancient cultures produced heroic myths; however the Mesopotamians and Greeks did †¢The Epic of Gilgamesh greatly influenced later Greek heroic myth(movement of ideas from the East to West in Archaic period) †¢Gilgamesh was a real man who rules the Sumerian City of Uruk c 2600 B. C. E (cuneiform lists of kings) evidence that heroes likely lived at one time. †¢This influence on Greek heroic myth is shown by shared motifs: Shared Motifs †¢One of the hero’s parents may be divine (eg Gilgamesh) but he is like all humans, destined to die. †¢Miraculous or unusual birth of which we know little (Part is missing from the Epic Gilgamesh) †¢Hero is outstanding in his strength and is a menace to those around him, friend, and foe alike. †¢Hero has a male companion (Enkidu created by the gods from clay to temper Gilgamesh’s spirit) †¢Hero falls under enemy power and is forced to complete impossible tasks (eg. Kills Humbaba) †¢Taboo broken by hero, terrible price demanded (Enlil the storm-god was angry that Gilgamesh and Enkidu killed Humbaba) †¢Hero resists the temptations of a dangerous woman (Ishtar asks her father Anu to send Bull of Heaven) †¢Hero responsible for friend’s death (Enkidu dies after he and Gilgamesh kill Bull of Heaven – cf. Patroclus & Achilles) †¢Hero goes on a quest to defeat death; even traveling to the underworld (Gilgamesh travels across the waters of death to see Utnapushtim (cf. Ziusudra, Atrahasis, Noah, Deucallion) †¢Has help of gods, spirits, or magical objects (Gilgamesh magical stilts/poles) †¢Hero returns home, atones for his misdeeds and accepts his mortality (after failing twice to achieve immortality- unable to stay awake for 7 days, loss of prickly herb at the bottom of the sea) †¢Hero given a great reward (Gilgamesh honored by people of Uruk) †¢Hero given a great funeral and may become a god (Gilgamesh given a fine funeral and his memory will never die) Rationalism and Allegory †¢THEAGENES (6TH CENTURY B. C. E) THEORIZED THAT BATTLES BETWEEN THE GODS REPRESENTED clashes between natural elements (e. g in the Lliad 20.54ff Apollo (representing fire) fights Poseidon (water) †¢Cronus is identified with time ( Cronos)- all things are begotten by time and devoured by it as well, just like Cronus’s children. Because of this false etymology, we still envision Father of time as the grim-reaper (with sickle) on account of Cronus’s castration of his father †¢Another false-etymological example stems of Hera sounding like the Latin word for â€Å"air†, â€Å"Air† lay just beneath the upper-atmosphere. Or â€Å"aether† ie. Jupiter/Zeus lays just about Juno/Hera. Historical Allegory †¢Euhemerism: myths reveals a historical truth (Euhermerus wrote of a golden column  inscribed with the names with early human kings) †¢The conflicts between Uranus, Cronus and Zeus were representative of palace intrigues †¢During his reign Zeus traveled the earth teaching the arts of civilization, banning cannibalism, and founding temples. Died on Crete after a long life †¢Gods may have been kings and heroes of real men who founded cities and did great deeds. Moral Allegory †¢The interpretation that a myth is a system of advice on good and bad behavior †¢Eg. Daphine was an example of chastity and Harpies who steal men’s food are really prostitutes who ruin men with their fees. †¢When Paris gives his famous judgment, he is really choosing between 3 kinds of life: active (Hera), contemplative (Athena), amorous (Aphrodite) which all men must choose. Perseus and the Myths of the Argive Plain †¢Rich Bronze Age area †¢Tiryns- Perseus was the king of Tiryns when he founded Mycenae †¢Argos not important in the Bronze Age, but is often confused in the myth with the Mycenae which was The Wanderings of Io †¢The River god Inachus and Melia- parents of Io †¢Io – ancestor of 3 great dynasties: the houses of Argos, Crete & Thebes †¢Zeus’s passion and Hera’s jealousy (spots mysterious clouds) †¢The â€Å"cow†, Hera took her and takes the cow puts a monster to watch her, so Zeus doesn’t see her again †¢Argus (Hundred Eyes) †¢Hermes (Argeiphontes; Killer of Argus) †¢Ionian Sea, Byzantium- the Bosporus â€Å"cow-missing†, the Caucasus Mountains(Meets Prometheus; things will get better), Egypt (Regains human form) †¢Gives birth to Epaphus â€Å"he who has been touched† Crimes of the Danaids †¢Epaphus + Memphis (name of the ancient Egyptian capital, daughter of the Nilus the Nile River)= Libya (country west of the Nile river in North Africa) †¢Libya + Poseidon are parents of †¢Agenor (Ancestor to the houses of Crete and Thebes)(Arabia) †¢Belus (ancestor of Perseus & Royal house of Argo, means â€Å"lord† in Semitic language)(Libya) Crimes of the Danaids †¢Aegyptus has 50 sons †¢Danaus has 50 daughters= the Danaids †¢They flee to Argos to prevent proposed marriages (feared a takeover of Libya) †¢The sons of Aegyptus eventually marry to Danaids†¦. (Danaus gives all his daughters daggers to kill every husband) †¢Only Hypermnestra spared her husband Lynceus- â€Å"all but one† motif †¢All the daughters/Sisters were doomed on the underworld, they had to fill a jar that would never fill The Legends of Perseus Danae and the Shower of Gold †¢Lynceus (the one sparred) in Argos after Danaus. †¢His sons Abas has twins ( hate each other-quarreled in womb cf. Jacob & Esau and Isis, Osiris & Seth) †¢Acrisius has a daughter, Danae but wants sons (Heirs) †¢Oracles say that Danae will have a son, but that he will kill his grandfather (Acrisius) (Forbidden to Marry- prohibition) †¢Acrisius builds underground bronze chamber to imprison Danae (folktake; Seclusion) †¢Zeus â€Å"shower of gold† impregnates her (Folktale motif: violation of prohibition. Heroic motif: extraordinary birth) †¢Perseus and Danae set adrift in a wooden box (folktake motif: threat of death) †¢Dictys (â€Å"netman†) at Seriphos saves Danae and Perseus (folktale motif: liberation). †¢Dicty’s brother Polydectes (â€Å"much-receiver†, the king of Seriphos) demands Danae’s hand in marriage †¢Perseus tricked into going on a quest for the head of a Gorgon: he had no horse as a wedding gift for Polydecates- Perseus boasts â€Å"I will bring anything, else Polydecates wants, even a Gorgon’s head (Heroic motif: hero falls under enemy power and is forces to complete impossible tasks) Perseus, the Gorgon Slayer †¢Gorgons: †¢Stheno †¢Euryale †¢Medusa (The only mortal Gorgon) †¢Instructions from Athena: find the Graeae â€Å"grey-haired women† and learn whereabouts of helpful Nymphs (grabs eye, demands answers – â€Å"where are they†). †¢Perseus receives magical objects from the Nymphs: Hade’s cap of invisibility, winged sandals; special pouch. Hermes also provides a sword and a polished bronze shield (Heroic motif: has the help of the gods, spirits, or magical objects) The killing of Medusa †¢Uses shield as a mirror to avoid the gaze of the Gorgons, sneaks up on Medusa and cuts off her head †¢From the body of Medusa, who was at the time pregnant by Poseidon †¢Pegasus (Later tamed by Bellerophon) †¢Chrysaor †¢Puts his head in pouch, flies off with winged sandals with the Stheno and Euryale in pursuit (can’t see him with the cap of invisibility). †¢Perseus free’s his mother by showing the Medusa’s head to Polydecates Perseus and Andromeda †¢A variant has Perseus returning to Seriphos after a few adventures †¢Came to Joppa (near Modern Tel Aviv) ruled by Cepheus †¢Cepheus’s daughter, Andromeda, is about to be sacrificed to a sea monster, because of a rash boast by her mother, Cassiopeia (more beautiful than the Nereids) †¢Perseus given Andromeda’s hand in marriage and the kingdom for having freed her †¢Phineus (Cepheus’s brother) to whom Andromeda has been betrothed, bursts in a banquet in Honor of Perseus and is turned into stone with his men by the head of Medusa. †¢Perseus stays in the East for a year and gives birth to Perses, ancestor to the Persian people. The Death of Acrisius †¢Wanting to meet his grandfather Perseus returns to Argos †¢Acrisius flees (it is fated that Perseus will kill him) †¢At a sports contest in Thessaly, Perseus accidentally kills him with a stray discus (Motif: heroes can be a threat to civil society, even without meaning harm) †¢Ashamed to receive the kingdom from his death grandfather, Perseus trades Argos for Tiryns with Megapenthes (cousin) †¢Perseus also builds Mycenae (rules, begets dynasty) and lives there with Andromeda for  many years. At their deaths, Athena placed them among the stars as constellations, remembered forever. Heracles Oct 8 †¢Herakles Alexikakos (Wards off evil) †¢Obscure origins- Argive plain? (Eurystheus) or Thebes? (Birth place). Belong to all Greeks †¢Associated with an earlier time – club, bow & arrows †¢Excessive (Heroic) †¢Shaman figure- â€Å"Master of Animals† provided food and protection to his people †¢Heraclids (Dorians/Spartans) †¢Perseus’s granddaughter is Alcmena, wife of Amphitryon †¢While Amphitryon (H’s stepdad) was off fighting pirates, Zeus disguised himself as Amphitryon. †¢As Zeus leaves, the real Amphitryon appears †¢In his way, Alcmena gave birth to a child of Zeus (Herakles) and of Amphitryon (Iphicles) †¢HERA IS NOT HAPPY†¦ (TRICKS ZEUS INTO SWEARING HIS 1ST OFFSPRING BORN THAT DAY WOULD RULE. Hera’s delay tactics- Eurystheus (Perseus’s descendent, Heracle’s cousin) born before Herakles. †¢Received an aristocratic education (wrestling, archery, warfare, playing lyre†¦ Kills Linus for telling Herakles that he is bad at playing the lyre (poor linus) †¢Herakles sent away to tend cattle in the mountains cf. cattle of Geryon- Herakles as master of animals. †¢Hunted a lion (Ravaging flocks) for king Thespius of Thespaie by day, stayed at his house by night (50 daughters-Heraclids, sons of Heracles, founded the noble family of the Spartans) †¢Herakles marries Megara daughter of Creon (King of Thebes) and has 3 children †¢Goes mad and kills his family (driven insane by Hera; he believes that they are his enemies) †¢Went to Delphi to learn what he must do to atone for his crime- must leave Thebes, go to Argive plain serve Eurystheus (Herakle’s cousin, king of Mycenae) †¢12 Labors †¢Miasma is that his blood is tainted and his blood his contagious. ( blood guilt) Must be purified by a God. †¢12 LABORS. 1ST LABOR, FACES A MONSTROUS LION; SKIN THAT IS IMPENETRABLE. NEMEAN LION. Wrestles with the lion and kills him. Use’s the lion’s claws to skin the lion. Wears the skin †¢2ND HERAKLE SLAYS THE HYDRA (OFFSPRING OF TYPHEOUS; GAEA) SIMILAR SITUATION WHERE THEY overcome the older generation. Herakle has help from his nephew, kills the Hydra by having his nephew torch the heads of which he cuts off, so they do not grow back. Hydra’s blood is poisonous, arrows dipped in it. †¢3RD HERAKLES AND ATHENA WAS TO CAPTURE THE GOLDEN HIND OF CERYNEIA WHO IS SCARED TOArtemis. By taking the stag when it was asleep. Told Artemis on the way back that he had to. †¢4TH TOLD TO RETRIEVE THE GIRDLE OF HIPPOLYTA FROM THE AMAZONS. IT IS TO EXERT SEXUAL dominances. †¢5TH HERAKLES TOLD TO BRING THE ERYMANTHIAN BOAR TO EURYSETHUS WHO HIDES IN PITHOS. (Eurysethus is scared and builds himself a jar to hide from) †¢6th Mares of Diomedes 4 man eating horses who were owned by Diomedes. In the end he fed Diomedes to his mares because the mares kill his favored companion Abderus †¢7TH TRIPLE BODY GERYAN, THE CATTLE’S WHERE HE KILLED GERYAN AND HIS BROTHER WHO GUARDED the cattle. Eurytheus sacrificed the cattle to Hera. †¢8TH APPLES OF HESPERIDES (WEDDING GIVES TO HERA WHEN SHE MARRIED ZEUS) THESE APPLES ARE immortal. They are grown on the edge of the world. Atlas taunt’s Herakle’s with the Apples of the Hesperides. Herakles took the world on his shoulder. Atlas gets the apples, Herakle’s trick Atlas by telling Atlas to hold the world while Herakle’s adjust his neck. Atlas takes the world, and Herakle takes the apples from him. †¢9TH CERBERUS IS HADE’S HOUND OF HELL. HE MAKE SURE YOU NEVER LEAVE HELL. DRAGS BACK THE hounds of hell †¢10TH AUGEAN STABLES; CLEANSES THE AUGEAN. IT IS A BIG STABLE, STABLE OF 1000 DIVINE CATTLE’S that poop a lot. Re-routed a couple of rivers and flush the stables out. †¢11TH HERCULES WAS TO DRIVE AWAY AN ENORMOUS FLOCK OF BIRDS WHICH GATHERED AT A LAKE NEAR the town of Stymphalos. Hercules had no idea how to drive the huge gathering of birds away. The goddess Athena came to his aid, providing a pair of bronze krotala, noisemaking clappers similar to castanets. These were no ordinary noisemakers. They had been made by an immortal craftsman, Hephaistos, the god of the forge. †¢12TH LABOR; HERCULES EASILY DISPOSED OF THE CRETAN BULL. BRINGS THE BULL BACK TO EURYTHEUS. King Midas was to sacrifice whatever animal that the Poseidon sent. The god sent a bull so beautiful that he couldn’t. Made the bull rampage all over Crete and made Midas’s wife fall in love with it, making the Minotaur. He put the Minotaur in the labyrinths, feed’s him with the prisoners of Athens. After the Labors †¢Wished to merry Lole, daughter of Eurytus, a local king. He refused remembering Megara’s fate †¢Eurytus discovers 12 prize mares missing, sends Son to question Herakles- son is killed (violate of Xenia) †¢Herakles goes to Delphi to find out how to atone for crimes, Pythia refuses to respond. †¢Herakle steals tripod runs off and boasts that he will establish his own oracle! †¢Apollo prescribe 3 years as a woman’s slave (Omphale the Lydian queen) †¢Afterwards marries Deianaira â€Å"man killer† †¢Tricked by the centaur Nessus; told that his blood and semen would make potent love potion to use on Heracles. †¢The blood is poisoned by the Hydra blood used to kill him †¢Undergoes Apotheosis (became a god of Olympus) after his mortal self is killed by the poison †¢Hercale marries Hebe (personification of youth) after ascending to Olympus Oct 10 Athens and Theseus.

Research: Sampling and Chili Sauce

1. 0Introduction The paper seeks to propose a research on the management of Tesco Stores Malaysia would like to introduce own branded chili sauce to Malaysia consumer. This paper will be organized under the following broad headings: * Problem identification * Literature review * Research philosophy and approach and research design * Data collection 2. 0General statement of the Problem. There are many type of products in the market. For example, in Malaysia there are more than ten type of chili sauce are selling in the market.Tesco would like to introduce its own branded chili sauce to the Malaysian consumer. The main factor of successful to introduce the chili sauce is the acceptance of the consumer. Brands vary in the amount of value and power they have in the marketplace. For example, Life brand chili sauce is a well known in the existing market, when a consumer knows that a brand exists in the market, the brand is said to have high brand awareness. If consumers’ awareness t owards the brands is high, its brands equity is also high.Besides that, the quality of the chili sauce also important, consumer will compare the ingredient, texture and etc with the other brands of chili sauce. A brand is valued high when consumers stay loyal to that particular brand. Consumers don’t switch to other brands and they willing to wait even if the store runs out stock. Example of products and brand that have high brand loyalty are Kimball, Maggie and Life. A brand is perceived to have high value if the brand is of goods quality. 3. 0Formulated research questionThe aim of this research is to survey the successfulness of the management of Tesco Stores Malaysia to introduce its own brand to the consumer. The research questions are: 1) To investigate quality, packaging, availability, range, promo and how the perceptions differ across demographic profile, that is level of income and age group. 2) Pricing 3) To determine the perception of customer towards to know the pr oduct quality. For example, the chili sauce texture, taste and so on. 4. 0Literature ReviewNo. | Author / title| Objective| Variable| Methodology| Finding| 1. | Marketing Communications Plan for : a new sauce brand under magi by nestleAuthor : IIoka Benneth Kueh Yi Kia Teng King Wee| To increase the market share and sales volume of Maggi brands in Malaysia up to 10 percent by the 12th month of compaign. To increase brand awareness of Maggie brand in Malaysia up to 20 percent by the end of the 12th Month. To generate up to 10 percent of total sale of Maggie brand in Malaysia. Selecting a new brand, unique selling point, positioning, new label design and packaging graphic, advertising and other promotional strategic. | Survey research will be used on the commencement, middle and conclusion stages of the campaign. A media evaluation service will be engaged to ascertain whether the media accomplished (qualitative and quantitative)Website participation be evaluated. | The strengths and w eaknesses of internal and external factor of Maggi.For example, Management, marketing, research and development,Competitive, technology and so on. | 2. | H. J. Heinz Inc: Industry AnalysisAuthor : Kasey FeigenbaumJustin WhiteElliott Matticks| Heinz is seeking to expand its offerings by focusing on emerging markets in countries such as brazil, Philippines, Turkey, and Vietnam where there is large potential growth. | Heinz is striving to develop globally while positively impacting the world. The company is promoting sustainability and supplying more than 30 countries with natural hybrid tomato seeds. Products sold through heinz’s own sales organizations through independent brokers, and agents distributors of chains, wholesalers, cooperative and independent grocery accounts, convenient stores, bakeries and so on. â€Å"Heinz Ketchup Road trip† and the campaign was pitched on social media site including twitter and facebook. | Heinz manufactures and markets products meet t he standards of individual countries, and the needs and wants of consumers in these countries.Heinz focuses on marketing their products with an emphasis on health, wellness and sustainability. | 3. | Cooking with ease: new Kikkoman Asian sauce line make home preparation of ethnic cuisine more convenient, providing consumers with an easy means of cooking Asian cuisine is a smart move and the new Kikkoman Restaurant series Asian Sauces supply this mean for today’s busy consumer. | One of the goals during the development of Kikkoman Asian sauces was maintaining an authentic or traditional flavor in each of the four varieties. During product development, several prototypes underwent numerous iterations and internal tests to ensure the ideal flavor profile was created in each version. | â€Å"The reason behind our decision to launch this brand new product line, the Kikkoman Restaurant Series Asian Sauces, results from extensive market research with consumers revealing the trend t hat Asian cuisines are becoming very popular,† says Shig Nemoto, vice president of sales and marketing at Kikkoman. â€Å"Kikkoman is known as the expert in the manufacture of soy sauces and teriyaki sauces, and our corporate strategy was to grow and extend within the same arena through the popular Asian flavors captured in these sauces,† says Nemoto. â€Å"Our brand is perceived as the highest quality product, and we expect consumers will associate these new entities, this new product line, with the same standard for high quality. â€Å"| 4. | Campbell reaches into pouch to heat up soup salesAuthor : Martinne Geller| Introducing new line called â€Å"Campbell’s Go†.Campbell plans to extent that line to other simple meals that are meant to appeal to younger shoppers with graphic that are edgier than Campbell’s traditional products. | The company plans to launch over 50 new items in fiscal 2013| Campbell spending on advertising to spur sales, rathe r than price-driven promotions. | Campbell’s are changing plan will not go back to heavy discounting and they confidence that between the levers of price, promotion, brand building and news to the base with innovation, they will be able to fully competitive in this business. 5. 0Research philosophy and approach & research design. In research, understanding of the appropriate research philosophy and approach is important before beginning a research. Quantitative analysis can be done for a number of reasons such as measurement, performance evaluation of a financial instrument. It can also be used to predict real world events such as changes in a share price. A business or financial analysis technique that seeks to understand behavior by using complex mathematical and statistical modeling, measurement and research.By assigning a numerical value to variable, quantitative analysts try to replicate reality mathematically. The survey can be collect from population There are issued a ssociated with population decline and changes in population composition in the developed world (low fertility, population ageing, increasing international migration and ethnic minority population) and those associated with population growth and environment in the developing world (rapid decline of fertility, disease and mortality control and urbanization).Population studies, as an integrated social science, seeks to examine processes and patterns of population change their local and global impact. For example, from the population we can collect the data of gender, age range, gender and so on to analysis the data how many of people like Tesco own brand chili sauce, how many don’t like. Besides that, the research also can collect data through questionnaire. A questionnaire is a research instrument consisting of a series of question and other prompt for the purpose of gathering information from respondents.Questionnaire have advantages over some other type of survey in that they are cheap, do not require as much effort from the questioner as verbal or telephone surveys, and often have standardized answer that make it simple to compile data. For example, questionnaire may include the question of the consumer satisfaction to the Chili sauce like the texture, taste, ingredient, price, packaging and so on. Other than that, sampling techniques provide a range of method that enable the researcher to reduce the amount of data needed, by considering only data from a subgroup rather than from all possible cases or element.In order to ensure that the data collected is representative, a few term related to the concept of sampling must be understood like population, element, censes, population frame or study population, sample, sampling unit or subject and sampling frame. The reason for using a sample are many; in research investigation involving several hundreds and even thousands of elements it would be impractical to collect data, test or examine every element. Con sider the cost of using a census, the time and the human resources needed; they are prohibitive.The quality of the information obtained from a sampling study is likely to be more reliable than from a census; this is mostly because fatigue is reduced and fewer errors will result in collecting the data, especially if a large number involved. In some situations, sampling is required. In testing the chili sauce of Tesco product, it would be impossible to test the entire population because the amount is large. A variety of sampling designs are available and the choice depends on the requirements of the research, the objectives of the study and the resources available.The sampling technique available is divided into two type. Probability sampling, the chance of probability of each case being selected from a population is known and is usually the same. It is based on the concept of random selection, which is a controlled procedure that assures each population element, or case is given a kn own –zero chance of selection. By using a probability samples, it is possible to answer research questions and to achieve objectives of estimating characteristics of the population from the sample. Thus, probability sampling is often used in surveys and in experimental research.In non-probability sampling, the probability of each case being selected from the total population is not known, and it is impossible to answer research questions or to address objectives that require statistical inferences about the characteristics of the population. Although generalizations could still be made from non-probability samples about the population, it cannot be done on statistical grounds. For this reason, non-probability sampling is often used in a case study research. 6. 0Data collection Data collection can be collect by using simple random sampling.In this sampling technique, each population element has an equal chance of being selected into the sample. The samples are drawn using rand om number tables or generators. This technique is best used if an accurate, complete and easily accessible sampling frame is available. By using random numbers, the selection of sample is done without bias, thus making the sample representative of the whole population. The Tesco management can randomly choose the consumer from the Tesco card member randomly to send the questionnaire by e-mail, posted mail or Short Message Service (SMS).From the database of the Tesco store can send by the area Tesco. For example, Penang Tesco will send questionnaire to the consumer who join the member at Penang Tesco, that mean the consumer maybe stay near Penang, same to Bukit Mertajam Tesco and other too. In this sampling technique the questionnaire, the major disadvantages of this sampling form is that is requires a listing of the population elements. This will take longer time to implement if the population covers a large random geographical area of selection, then a selected case is likely to be dispersed throughout the area, and will be costly due to the postage charges.The Tesco management can prepare reply envelope to the consumer that who don’t have e mail address and have to by normal postages, this is easier the consumer return the questionnaire. 7. 0Conclusion. A good sample should be accurate; there is little or no bias or systematic variance. Research is to collect accurate data and to analysis then only the management of Tesco Stores Malaysia know whether it would be feasible to introduce its own branded chili sauce to the Malaysia consumers after evaluated the entire questionnaire that received back from the consumer.Reference http://www. iservices. ilokabenneth. com/images/Maggi_Nestle. pdf http://www. culturaldiplomacy. org/culturaldiplomacynews/content/articles/participantpapers/2011/april/biec-roa-nua/h. j. _heinz_inc-_industry_analysis-_kasey_feigenbaum. pdf http://goliath. ecnext. com/coms2/gi_0199-5295700/Cooking-with-ease-new-Kikkoman. html http:/ /www. reuters. com/article/2012/02/22/us-campbellsoup-idUSTRE81L22V20120222 OPEN UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA (OUM), AUGUST 2011 BBRC4103

Reflection scenario based essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

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Macroeconomic in the US - Assignment Example At the moment, one of the major economic issues that the United States economy is facing is an increasing number of unemployed individuals. Though there have been some improvements in creating more jobs, the unemployment rate remains high in the United States. For the last ten years, the United States unemployment statistics have revealed that the unemployment rate is still high. In a significant part of 2003, the unemployment level was below 6 percent. Throughout 2004, the unemployment level was still below 6 percent (Gliksberg, 2013). After the fiscal crisis in 2008, the unemployment level increased severely making many Americans to be jobless. As stated by the United States Bureau of Statistics, the unemployment level was 7.3 percent in November. Due to this, necessary policies need to be adopted so that to bring the unemployment level to sustainable levels. There are different macroeconomic solutions that may assist in helping solve the present unemployment issue in the United States economy. These solutions are both monetary and fiscal policies, which help in maintaining the stability of the economy (Li, 2013). As the present level of unemployment is essentially recurring, it is vital to consider executing expansionary monetary and fiscal policies. An expansionary financial policy may be implemented correctly by taxation, government purchases and also transfer payments. The United States government needs to increase its spending on healthcare and infrastructure. For example, when roads are built, there will be a high demand for materials. This will create jobs for engineers, drivers among other individuals. When taxation is reduced by the government, there will be an increase in disposable income for households. This is reflected directly by increased consumption and will lead to a demand increase (Li, 2013). In meeting this demand in crease, firms will be needed to employ more workers, therefore, reducing the unemployment

Reflection Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3250 words

Reflection - Essay Example This paper is based on an actual experience during my community placement with a patient I shall refer to as Mr. Smith (not his real name). To protect his identity and in accordance with patient confidentiality, his real name shall not be used in this reflection (Nursing and Midwifery Council, 2008). Reflective practice is the process of thinking about one’s actions in the clinical setting and taking responsibility for improving one’s professional skills. Taylor (2006) mentions that reflection allows a person to review the positive aspects of one’s actions in the clinical setting and to build on such achievements in order to identify areas which require improvement. The nursing profession is a dynamic and ever-changing profession and according to the Department of Health (DOH, 2004) and the Welsh Assembly Government (WAG, 2002), nurses have to expand their knowledge in order to improve their practice. A discussion by Jasper (2003), pointed out that knowledge gain ed from reflection fills in the gaps between theory and practice. This is crucial to nurses because continuous development is an important part of clinical governance (Royal College of Nursing, 2003). In effect, reflective practice helps improve the quality of care delivered to patients. The topic was chosen in order to demonstrate professional development in the communication skills seen in the delivery of patient care. This development would assist in evaluating patient advocacy in the multi-professional team. It would also help ensure that a nursing practitioner is able to identify the gaps in her communication skills with the patient. Gibbs, reflective cycle There are different reflective frameworks which were considered for this assignment; these frameworks also provide useful guidance in reflection. However, the Gibbs Reflective Cycle was chosen because it is familiar and helps provide a structured and simplistic cycle. Bulman (2008) however argues that the Gibbs Reflective Cy cle is too broad and it implies an incoherent reflective process. Nevertheless, this reflective cycle is the most appropriate cycle to apply because it includes specific elements of the experience which allow reflective processes to change and improve clinical practice (Johns, 2004). In establishing a framework for reflection, it is important to note that the reflective process is an intellectual and an affective experience which involves the process of exploring one’s experience in order to successfully initiate change (Bulman, 2004). It is therefore important for a reflection to lead to change in one’s behavior and clinical practice. Without adequate guidance in the process, the student or learner might not be able successfully learn from the reflective process (Benner, 1994). With the guided help of my mentors and more experienced clinical practitioners they would help ensure that I would be able to pass through the reflective process and learn from his reflection. 1. Description of the event During my placement with the District nursing team, my mentor asked me to accompany her to a gentleman’s house in order to carry out an assessment and to explain what services were available. Before the interview, I dressed professionally and appropriately, making sure that my uniform was crisp and clean and my hair was arranged properly. The referral came from his wife, and not from the patient, as the patient was recently discharged from the hospital.

Aboriginal Maternal Health and Outcomes Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Aboriginal Maternal Health and Outcomes - Essay Example Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander women have shown some improvement in healthcare practices, but the rates are still higher than non-indigenous women. The teenage mothers’ rate of birth was at 18.6% in 2010 compared to 3.4% among non-indigenous mothers. Mothers starting antenatal care at less than 14 weeks increased to 71.3% which was a good sign, but those starting the same care at less than 20 weeks also increased to 84.1% from 74.8%. These percentages are very high compared to non-indigenous percentage of 6.9% from 11.2% (Centre for Epidemiology and Evidence, 2012). This is clear evidence that antenatal care attendance is very poor. There are other high rates or figures measuring Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander women performance and outcomes in healthcare. These are summarized in the table above.An Antenatal Strategy That Could Be Implemented To Improve Maternal and/or Fetal OutcomesThe poor outcomes can be attributed to culturally unsafe practices, and inequities in service delivery. Kildea and others (2012), evaluated the impact of antenatal care that utilized a combination of cultural practices and standard practice antenatal care, and provided recommendations on what was appropriate. In this research, there was a specialist's antenatal clinic. Since the researchers had established that Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander women had poor outcomes when it comes to infant mortality rates and the infants’ well-being, this antenatal clinic proved to be very beneficial.

Harnessing Information Management, the Data, and Infrastructure Assignment

Harnessing Information Management, the Data, and Infrastructure - Assignment Example General Electric deals with sale and manufacture of GE’s jet engines, hospital MRI equipment, trains, and turbines. The components require utmost efficiency in their operation which require analysis of a lot of performance and service data that will be analyzed to create better gadgets and machines. Information management is, therefore, crucial to GE in that: It reduces operation cost that require constant processing of information. A good management of information will ensure that all the departments like manufacturing and sales departments get already processed information in real, and this reduces overall cost.It ensures that a lot of information is gotten from the same data source.It will reduce conflicting information requirements for either the management, production of the marketing departments since they might require the same data in their daily processes. Information management also ensures data security due the access controls and authorization levels created. Access controls can be implemented by giving particular people only write or read capabilities to the database with database administrators being given all the privileges. Information management will ensure that there are flexibility and responsiveness of information. It is required that all GE departments and branches all over the world have instant access to information in their databases. Instant access of information is achieved through effective management of data and processed information. New Information Technologies come up to replace existing ones with the hope of improving performance. GE Electric is a big swing company that has invested in new IT architectures to improve its performance. GE has invested heavily in technologies like cloud deployment and implementation of digital sensors in their devices (General Electric, 2015). Cloud has enabled a lot of data or processed

New World Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

New World - Essay Example To begin with, John Smith was an English voyager, who was also a soldier and writer by choice; As a matter of fact, he was most well-known for his part in the establishment of the so-called first eternal English colony in the New World at Jamestown, Virginia. Smiths myth has grown-up over the periods, precisely due to the widespread story of his connection with Pocahontas, who was well known as a Native American princess. Through his writing the whole world was able to know him more closely and for them the most common characteristics figure associated with him was notorious self-promoter. His writing about himself, narrating various incidents of his life also gives a clear picture about him.. Smith, whose histories deliver ample of what is recognized about Pocahontas, was part of a provisional group of some 100 men assigned the charge of developing an American cluster on behalf of the London-based Virginia Company. Way back in April 1607, three of the company boats reach the coast o f Virginia and a group volunteered ashore. â€Å"What they found, one of the actual settlers wrote in a near-swoon, were "fair meadows and goodly tall Trees, with such Fresh-waters running through the woods.† In this line, if one analyzes the movie then it is very clear that there is the number of resemblance between the movie and the story of Smith. Dargis in his review has mentioned that the director opens the movie "The New World" with pictures of moving water, skinny-dippers shot from below and the lady who soon recognized by the viewer’s as Pocahontas when she pronounces something which sounds like a prayer (sing the song of a land). Then, after a brief recognition categorization, James Horner's music gives way to tweeting birds, blustering breeze and â€Å"what might be the rumble of distant thunder or a cannon blast.

The topic can be proposed by the writer Assignment - 6

The topic can be proposed by the writer - Assignment Example As a result, Vasquez has dealt with Freeman as he would have dealt with the principal; Juanco is therefore liable to compensate Vasquez for the amount of the supply (Mallor., 2009). A decision with a similar implication was arrived at in Billups Petroleum Company vs. Hardin’s Bakeries Corp 63 So 2d 543 Miss (1953) where a principle was found liable for acts of an agent acting outside the scope of his employment as in the present case Even though the defendant did not expressly authorize the new order and confirmed it, it was done by his assistant who the plaintiff had reasonable grounds to believe was acting under the authority of the principle thus creating an unwritten agency relationship as the principle was on leave. Vasquez therefore deserves compensation. It is immaterial to the case that the defendant had confirmed orders himself for the last 9 years as it does not rule out possibility of creating an agency relationship by

Visual Literacy in Teaching and Learning Research Paper

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Social Philosophy Essay Example for Free

Social Philosophy Essay Introduction As more and more cities, counties, states, and counties ban smoking in public places, place high taxes on cigarettes, and otherwise enact anti-smoking laws, clashes between the rights of one group of people and the rights of another are inevitable. If this principle were the basis for deciding public policy, which Mill advocated as one of its usages, Mill would fall somewhere in the middle on the smoking/anti-smoking spectrum. Certainly, Mill’s harm principle can be (and has been) used by both sides to support their own arguments.    In the smoking debate, the harm principle falls short in determining which of two harms is lesser, or which of two rights or interests is greater. This is why it is a useful philosophy in debate, but should not be the sole basis for legislation and public policy. John Stuart Mill’s Harm Principle In On Liberty, John Stuart Mill argued for a society organized around â€Å"one very simple principle †¦ that the sole end for which mankind are warranted, individually or collectively, in interfering with the liberty of action of any of their number, is self-protection† (15-16). This is referred to as the â€Å"harm principle,† and is considered one of the founding principles of utilitarianism (Wilson 45-48). Utilitarianism is a belief system which adopts the harm principle, arguing that each individual has the right is pursue his or her own happiness, as long as that pursuit doesn’t harm another individual also pursing their happiness or utility (Wilson 40-44). This is not quite the same as interfering or impeding an individual’s path to happiness, as Mill points out in chapter V of On Liberty; â€Å"In many cases, an individual, in pursuing a legitimate object, necessarily and therefore legitimately causes pain or loss to others, or intercepts a g ood which they had a reasonable hope of obtaining† (106-7).   In other words, Mill recognized that there was not a utopia where every individual could pursue happiness with no overlap when, for example, two individuals pursue happiness through the same, singular person. Mill’s goal was to create a principle that could serve as the basis for society, in legislation, and in social standards and customs. In the final chapter he goes into significant detail regarding the kinds of situations to which this principle could be applied, specifically â€Å"how far liberty may legitimately be invaded for the prevention of crime, or of accident† (108). Mill favors the strongest strictures on liberty in the case of children, where he argues for potential parents having to prove their financial fitness in order to have children at all, and then to provide education for all children (121-122). On issues of crime, he considers government to properly have a place as a precautionary, administrative organization than as a legislative and punitive one (Mill 128). Throughout the treatise, Mill treads the line between the liberties of individuals and the commitment each individual has to society, seeing individuals as heroes who must consistently fight against the whitewashing of democratic society, warning that â€Å"If resistance waits til life is reduced nearly to one uniform type, all deviations from that type will come to be considered impious, immoral, even monstrous and contrary to nature† (84). How the Harm Principle Relates to Anti-Smoking Laws Mill specifically discusses the â€Å"sale of poisons† and taxes on the sale of certain substances deemed to be immoral (109-113). He argues for both the sale and taxation of, for example, alcohol, as being regulation that is â€Å"not contrary to principle† (109). Therefore, we can extrapolate that he would not necessarily be averse to taxes on the sale of cigarettes, since It must be remembered that taxation for fiscal purposes is absolutely inevitable; that in most countries it is necessary that a considerable part of that taxation should be indirect; that the State, therefore, cannot help imposing penalties, which to some persons may be prohibitory, on the use of some articles of consumption. (114) This is important because it underlines Mill’s philosophy of harm as it relates to economics. He did not believe that by adding taxation which would put the price of a certain item out of reach for some individuals, that this was â€Å"harming† them in such a way as to impose on their pursuit of happiness and utility. He considered taxation to be most properly levied against â€Å"what commodities the consumer can best spare† (114). Cigarettes and tobacco are certainly considered ‘extras’ rather than necessities in contemporary society, but they have not always been considered as such. So where, at certain points and in certain cultures, cigarettes were considered something of necessity, the taxation of them would have been an encroachment from the State onto an individual’s liberty. This case problematizes the relationship between Mill’s harm principle and his theory of democratic societies being slavishly ruled by the majority opinion. We have seen an enormous shift in popular opinion regarding the use of tobacco in the United States. What may have been an affront on liberty 50 or 100 years ago (heavy taxation of cigarettes and tobacco products) may be viewed now as simply being necessary to fund our government. If societies are not static entities, and the mores of a single society may shift over even short periods of time, how can we be sure that the currently prevailing opinion is, in fact, the ‘right’ one? Mill believed that â€Å"Society has expended fully as much effort in the attempt †¦ to compel people to conform to its notions of personal, as of social excellence† (19). Indeed the taxation of cigarettes seems to amount to a sin tax, as more of a punishment than a tax of an item which is not absolutely necessary to survival. Medical science is not immune to these changing tides in public opinion. During the waning years of Prohibition in this country, teetotalers claimed that the exhalation of breath from a person drinking alcohol could effectively â€Å"poison† an innocent person standing nearby (Stewart lines 18-19). Similarly, anti-smoking proponents claim today that the exhalations of smoke from one individual can adversely affect the health of another individual. Mill saw this as an argument against censorship; â€Å"We can never be sure that the opinion we are endeavoring to stifle is a false opinion, and if we were sure, stifling it would be an evil still† (14). While we may not be able to know without doubt which opinion is the right one, Mill saw this as an opportunity for individuals to exercise their liberty through discussion and debate. In the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry on Mill, Fred Wilson discusses the important of debate in Mill’s philosophy; â€Å"Only through free debate can such critical skills be developed and maintained: our self-development as reasonable persons, capable of critical assessments for belief and action† (45). The goal is not to produce an unerringly ‘right’ decision, but to create a society where open and honest discussion is a part of the mechanism of liberty in society, as both a check on our human fallibility and an encouragement to progress. Why the Harm Principle is Inadequate as a Basis for Public Policy The harm principle provides a philosophy of the individual and his or her relationship to society which is useful as an individual or institution level philosophy. This is especially true for those individuals or institutions without a set of religious beliefs, as the harm principle provides a system of morality to follow. However, as the basis for legislation and public policy, it is somewhat inadequate. There are, more often than not, many people with conflicting interests, and while the harm principle may form the basis of discussion, in the end an individual’s liberty may be stifled in favor of another’s. At that point, the decision has to be made as to which liberty is more important. In the case of smoking bans, an individual who derives happiness from smoking, particularly happiness from smoking in a public place, where he or she is also able to drink and socialize with friends, is taken away. At the same time, other individuals are not subjected to the possible ill health effects of secondhand smoke. The harm principle provides a useful lens through which to frame the debate, but policymakers must often make slightly messier decisions than On Liberty provides for. The very nature of public opinion as Mill saw it (which was as a tyrannical force) means that the definitions of harm will change throughout history and across geography. This leads to both sides of the smoking debate claiming Mill as a member of their side. In an interview, Mill biographer Richard Reeves, in discussing the misuse of Mill by policymakers, said that; What sometimes happens is that if you are doing something that’s actually quite paternalistic, and you don’t want to say so because you want to dress it up as a liberal policy, you might use Mill. And you stretch the harm principle well beyond reasonable usage to justify what’s fundamentally a paternalistic policy. The worst thing is to dress up a paternalistic argument in shoddy, ill-worn, liberal clothing (par. 9). Mill saw the free thought and operation of the individual as being necessary to the progress of society, and especially as a check against both the State and prevailing public opinion (19). Conclusion In this essay I have described and critically examined Mill’s harm principle and how it relates to the contemporary issue of anti-smoking laws. I have argued that the harm principle as applied to anti-smoking laws is and could be used by either side of the debate. An individual who smokes finds his or her happiness circumscribed by the happiness of those individuals who do not wish to have cigarette smoke in the public places they frequent, and vice versa. A group of individuals are going to have their liberty trespassed upon in order for other groups of individuals to retain their liberty, and rather than bringing harm to none there are only degrees of harm, which are considered more or less harmful according to the current tides of public discourse. While this creates space for a robust debate (one of the requirements of a society based on liberty), it does not provide a basis for policymakers and legislators to create public policy. Works Cited Mayes, Tessa. â€Å"Mill is a Dead White Male With Something to Say.† Spiked! Review of Books 28 March 2008. 16 April 2008 http://www.spiked-online.com/index.php?/site/reviewof  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   books_article/4923. Mill, John Stuart. On Liberty and The Subjection of Women. New York: Penguin, 2006. Stewart, C. â€Å"The Case Against Smoking Bans.† 2002. New York City C.L.A.S.H. 18 April 2008   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   http://www.nycclash.com/CaseAgainstBans/Conclusion.html#Conclusion. Wilson, Fred. â€Å"John Stuart Mill.† The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. (Fall 2007).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Stanford University. 15 April 2008 http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2007/   Ã‚  Ã‚   entries/mill/.

Handling, Storage and Disposal of Samples

Handling, Storage and Disposal of Samples Expectations of a Health Care Professional In the histology laboratory all specimens arrive fixed in 10% buffered formalin. In the laboratory, the specimen and the request form are labeled with the same lab number. The specimens are left in the same order the lab number is given and processed. Safety gloves and an apron are worn when processing the specimen. Unfixed specimens received in a plane container are fixed in 10% formalin which is commercially prepared and left for one day to process. This is done if the specimen requires fixation. Certain specimens are an exception to this rule. Lymph nodes are wrapped in gauze when lymphoma is suspected, skin sections for Immunofluorescence due to Pemphigus vulgaris are suspended in saline solution, and frozen sections are not fixed since fresh tissue is sectioned for microscopic examination. Whether the result has been reported or not determines which samples are disposed and stored if the result has been reported or not: After the samples are processed the pieces of the sample that were not inserted in the cassette are placed back inside the respective container. The fixed specimen in the container is refrigerated until the result is reported (figure1). 3 weeks after reporting the result a disposal list is created and the specimens to be disposed are packed inside boxes, labeled and then sent for incineration. Samples such as fetus are kept for burial. Empty containers are left for a week and a half as a quality control and for human errors. In many cases the label on the container shows the type of specimen so the empty containers are left in case verification of type of specimen is required. Blocks and slides are stored permanently inside a storage room. All blocks and slides are carefully and methodically filed so they are available for records or for future reference. As years pass blocks remain unchanged but stains on the slide tend to fade so there is sample deterioration. After cutting, the blocks are placed in numerical order according to the year and placed inside boxes. The first and the last number of the blocks in each box are written on the boxes. All sides and top box are labeled and sealed with tape. Slides are filed in numerical order after the report is issued. Slides are placed in a slide box and the lab number of the first and last slide are written on the box. Effective self-management of time and workload The opening hours for the histology are from 6.00 am till 5.00 pm. The lab is open from Monday till Sunday and time shifts are available so the laboratory remains more open and more service is given to the public. The laboratory does not open during night shift because results in the histology laboratory are not considered urgent. Results must first be seen by the pathologist so no immediate results are required so processing is done during the day. Samples that are considered urgent In histology, specimens are not considered urgent because they have to be viewed by the pathologist results are issued. Frozen sections are considered urgent since the sample must be quickly processed so an intra-operative decision can be taken by the surgeon. Samples can also be considered urgent when a pathologist needs the results in a quick time, due to surgery scheduled on that day or the following day. Career-Long Self Directed Learning What is CPD? CPD stands for Continuing Professional Development, an ongoing free training programme in histopathology including histology and cytology (Institute of biomedical Science, 2011). It is defined as â€Å"The systematic maintenance, improvement and broadening of knowledge and skills, and the development of personal qualities, necessary for the execution of professional and technical duties throughout the practitioner’s working life† (The Chartered Institution of Highways Transportation, 2011). This means that CPD allows the employer to improve and to widen knowledge, quality, competence and skills in his/her profession. What constitutes CPD activity? A CPD is constituted by meetings, short courses, conferences or workshops that are created to inform other members of stuff or even the public. Organization and participation are essential for a successful CPD. It must be transparent, accountable and visible (Fox Fox, 2004, p.182). CPD can be done: To present one’s own research report With the aid of websites, journals, posters, books and other printed media To show something encountered during work, that can be of interest to rest of the workers To make and encourage new procedures and changes Introduce a new course that will be of interesting to the public or workers How does the CPD scheme benefit Pathology employers? A CPD scheme enables the biomedical scientist to develop the necessary knowledge, attitudes, personal effectiveness and skills for his/her professional practice. The employer must identify his/her and their employer’s learning needs. In order to improve patient care the employer must be up to date on facts, new concepts and most importantly on opinion and consensus (The Royal College of Pathologists, 2010). The employer can record activity and document all learning achieved (Academy of Medical Royal Colleges, 2010). All this is done not for only the present but also for future progression (Institute of biomedical Science, 2011). What are the benefits to a biomedical scientist (the employee) participating in the CPD scheme? Keep up to date with current rapid and expanding knowledge (The Royal College of Pathologists, 2010). Increases job satisfaction, productivity and quality of working life (Chen, Chang Yeh, 2006) Acquire new skills for safe and effective practice. This builds up confidence in the employee (Institute of biomedical Science, 2011). Promote professional ideas and new initiatives, increasing job satisfaction (Institute of biomedical Science, 2011). Documentation of all that is learned from the scheme is encouraged (The Royal College of Pathologists, 2010). Benefit from quality control measures (Academy of Medical Royal Colleges, 2010). Encourage reflective practice (Academy of Medical Royal Colleges, 2010). Reduce risk of clinical isolation (The Royal College of Pathologists, 2010). Prepare for new roles example managerial. Employers value employees that undergo continuous CPD since such employees show learning agility (Chen et al., 2006; Royal College of Pathologists, 2010). Maintain a reputation of the biomedical possession and public assurance (The Royal College of Pathologists, 2010). Where is the information relating to CPD displayed in Pathology? When a CPD meeting is going to be held all biomedical scientists are informed through an email. The email is sent to the principle to make sure that all the histology staff knows about the meeting. Vertical Audit Site of origin The trucut samples were taken from the right breast upper outer quadrant (Figure 2) Sample Taking and Description of sample The trucut biopsy is taken after a mammography showed a suspicious result. To diagnose, a trucut biopsy was performed. A trucut (core) biopsy is mostly done to sample tissues from a solid mass or calcium deposits, increasing sensitivity (Youk, Kim, Kim, Lee Oh, 2007). Very small masses or masses that are too deep are sampled using a guiding imaging technique. No scars are left after sampling. It has the advantage of being highly sensitive and specific (Sadler et al., 1994). The biopsy was performed at Mater Dei’s surgical operating theater (SOP) (in the Breast Clinic). The patient was given local anesthetic and left for a few minutes. A 16mm gauge core needle (figure 3) was then used to obtain the tissue samples. The tissues sampled contain tissues from the mass and normal healthy tissues from the breast. The sections sampled contain also provide more diagnostic information than mammography and fine needle aspiration. The samples are larger than FNA therefore results are more accurate (Kasraeian, Allison, Ahlmann, Fedenko Menendez, 2010). The clinician or nurse localised the mass and its boundaries and the mass was then immobilised. The needle was inserted through the skin into the lump and the tissue section was taken. To increase the chances of diagnosis 6 trucut specimens were taken. Their length varied from 9mm to 14 mm. The needle was then detached. The trucut specimens were then introduced into a container contain 10% buffered formalin. The container and the request form where received in the histology laboratory the following day. Specimen reception/numbering A courier brought the trucut specimen for histology processing into the histology laboratory. In the laboratory, the request form which comes together with the specimen was left for a day where registration and processing began. The following day, the receptionist used the HOE system to input data so they can be available only in the laboratory. The ID number of the patient was inputted followed by location the specimen was sampled example BOFFA, the name of the medical lab scientist, and the name of the pathologist/consultant. If available, the macro examination results were also included. A label containing the lab number, the letter on the cassette, the last two digits of the year, and the patient’ name and surname was prepared and printed. The label was prepared to label the slide after staining (in this case only one label was required). Specimen Registration The sample and its respective request form were both labeled with a barcode containing a specific laboratory number. The barcode was stuck on the top of the request form and at the back of the container (without covering any patient’s details). The laboratory number was also written with the aid of marker on top of the tap of the container. The request form was stamped at the top and at the bottom with the date in which it was received in the laboratory. The trucut specimen and the other histological specimens were left one after the other, according to the laboratory number. Specimen processing proceeded in this order. Specimen Processing 1. Cut-Up The trucut specimen was first processed in the laboratory at the cut-up laboratory. The name and surname of the patient and the lab number on the request form and on the specimen container were checked. The trucut biopsies in 10% buffered formalin were taken out from the container, using forceps, on the working bench. A macroscopic examination was performed on the 6 trucut biopsies obtained. Their length ranged in length from 9mm to 14mm. They were all embedded in one printed cassette labeled A1. Blue foam was also placed and the cassette was covered with a medal lid. It was then was placed in eosin with the other specimens. The trucut biopsies were then ready for further laboratory processing. After all specimens were cut, a histopathology worksheet was filled in. This included the case number of the patient, the number of tissues taken (6) , the tissue type (breast trucut), the number of blocks (A1), any comments such as left to fix (not applicable), the name of the pathologist who will examine the slides, and the name of the medical laboratory scientist (in this case who performed the cut up). 2. Tissue Processing (Impregnation) The biopsies were processed in an automated processing machine. This was performed in a closed system for trucut specimens using program A. It is important that the specimen is not larger than 3mm since it will not fit and cannot be cut afterwards. The closed system has 14 baths and it provides pressure, waving, bubbling and rotation to the tissues so the reagent can penetrate better. This is performed overnight, therefore the processor is programmed. When time for embedding is prolonged, the fixation time is prolonged to compensate. The tissues were first fixed in 10% buffered formalin so that the fixation was continued They were then dehydrated in 2 baths of 70% alcohol, in 1 bath 95% alcohol and then in 2 baths of absolute alcohol. The dehydrated sections were then moved into the chloroform and xylene. This step was done for clearing. Chloroform is a carcinogen and it affects the nervous system. The tissues were automatically moved in wax for tissue impregnation. This caused the tissues to harden. A temperature of less than 60oC was necessary because a higher temperature would have affected elasticity of the wax. Fumes go in a waste bottle and charcoal filter is present to filter leak. The tissues were now ready for embedding. 3. Embedding During embedding, the formalin fixed processed tissues are surrounded by wax so a solid paraffin block is obtained. This will enable the medical lab scientist to obtain thin sections from the block so that they can be stained and later viewed by the pathologist. The procedure involved was as follows: The cassette was taken from the processor to the warm compartment of the histocentre. The histocentre is an embedding center that facilitates paraffin embedding. It is equipped with a dispenser, specimen handling tank, warmed embedding moulds, warmed forceps wells and warm plate for orientation of the specimen in the melted paraffin. After checking the wax tank was properly filled, the cold plate and light were switched on. The cold plate helps in transferring of the melted paraffin. The tissue cassette was opened and the number on the labeled cassettes was checked with that on the worksheet entry. A suitable mould compartment corresponding to the size of the tissues in the cassette was chosen. The mould was filled with paraffin wax The tissue was placed at the bottom of the mould, correctly orientated. Incorrect orientation ruins the first section taken The trucuts were placed centrally aligned across long axis of the mould, and not placed at random. Adequate border of embedding medium must surround all sides of the tissue to give maximum cutting support. The mould placed in its cassette was placed on a cold plate and allowed to solidify. The block was scraped along a para trimmer to trim excess wax on surface. Tissues embedded must be perfectly flat to ensure that a complete section will be obtained. 4. Microtomy After the block was trimmed, thin sections were now cut using a microtome. The block was first trimmed to expose the area to be sectioned. A sharp non-rusted blade was used not to cause damage to the tissue by scoring. The microtome was cleaned from staples and sutures that remained to avoid damage of the blade. Microtomy was then started. The tightly screwed blade was checked and adjusted in the correct position. The micrometer gauge was set at a thickness of 18-22 µm. The block was placed inside the block holder of the microtome and secured. The block holder was in parallel to the edge of the blade so a straight ribbon of sections was obtained. The block holder was moved using the couae trimming device until the wax block was almost touching the edge of the blade. The fine trimming rotator device was when the block touched the edge of the blade and trimming of the block was started. Excess wax from the surface of the block was removed until the surface of the tissue was exposed. Debris due to coarse cutting was removed using a Camel hairbrush. The block was then placed on ice to cool giving the tissue and the wax similar consistency. Water absorbed by the tissue, slightly swelling it, so cutting is easier later on. If this does not occur sections tend to crease. The block was reattached to the microtome, leaving the left-hand rotator device. The micrometer gauge was then set at 3 µm. A series of sections forming a ribbon were cut and the first one was not used since it is usually thicker than 3 µm. 4 layers were taken. This means that the after the first section was achieved, the next few layers were ignored and then a second section was taken. The same was done for the third and fourth. This is done so that the pathologist can study many layers from the site taken so that diagnosis is more accurate. The appropriate ribbon section (for all the four sections obtained) was gently transferred into a water bath using forceps. The water bath is set a few degrees below the melting point of the wax. The sections were floated onto a glass slide containing 20% alcohol. The ribbon section was then released on the surface of a water bath (at a temperature less than that of melting point of wax i.e. 60oC. The sections were collected on an APES-coated glass slide. They were placed on near the other. Coated APES facilitates adhesion of the sections onto the glass slide. 4 slides were obtained (a slide for each layer taken). The number of the block was written on the glass slide using a diamond pen and placed on a slide rack. It was dried in an oven at about 60oC for 10 minute. 5. Staining Together with the other blocks from the other specimens the slides were dried and now ready for staining. The routine gold standard stain in histology is Haematoxylin and Eosin stain. This was done in an automated staining machine which followed the regressive method. This allowed overstaining of the tissues and removal excess dye by differentiation. The staining procedure was programmed as followed: The slides were left in the heating station so that all water is removed. The slides were dewaxed in a xylene for 4 minutes. This removed the surrounding wax from the tissues. They were then placed in xylene alcohol for 15 seconds. This started the gradual hydration process and prepared the tissues to be stained by haematoxylin dissolved in an aqueous solvent. The hydration process is followed by 2 baths of absolute alcohol (15 seconds each). The slides were then passed into four baths: 95% alcohol, 70% alcohol, 50% alcohol, and 30% alcohol (15 seconds each). They were then passed for 15 seconds in distilled water since haematoxylin stain is water based. The slides were then passed for 10 minutes in haematoxylin stain. The time inside the haematoxylin bath varies according to the properties of the stain. The prolonged use of the stain increases the time the slides pass in the bath. The slides were rinsed in two baths of distilled water, the first bath for 30 seconds and the second bath for 10 seconds. Differentiation then occurred in acid alcohol for 1 second. This allowed the nucleus to retain the stain and to decrease the pH (acidic) so colour changes to light purple. The slides were rinsed in distilled water for 15 seconds. Bluing occurred in tap water for 5 minutes. This raised the pH so sections became light blue. The slides were then passed into a bath containing distilled water for 15 seconds. The slides were passed in absolute alcohol for 15 minutes for dehydration and because this favours alcoholic eosin staining since it is alcohol based. Counterstaining was performed in a bath containing alcoholic eosin for 3.15 minutes. The time in alcoholic eosin varies according to the properties of the stain. The prolonged use of the stain increases the time the slides pass in the bath. Prolonging time allows the cytoplasm to take up the pink eosin stain. The slides were then dehydrated in four baths of acid alcohol, 15 seconds each. The slides were cleared in xylene alcohol for 15 seconds followed in 2 baths of xylene for 5 minutes each. This helps during mounting since DPX mountant is xylene based. The slides were left in the heating station so that all water is removed. The slides were taken out from the rack and mounted with DPX mountant. Quality Control: Two slides are stained with H E stain using the automated machine in the morning before starting routine staining. Errors in staining such as weak stains and contamination (example of eosin) can be detected so they can be solved. The 4 slides of the patient were therefore well stained since the machine passed QC on that day. Results: Nucleus: Blue Cytoplasm and other eosinophilic structures: Pale pink After processing, the number on the slides was checked with that of the cassette and the block. The slides were then labelled with their respective label. The cassette was placed on top of the slide to see if all the stained sections present on the block were sectioned. All the stained sections agreed with those on the block. Role of the Biomedical Scientist The role of the biomedical scientist is to perform all the above procedures. The medical lab scientists are divided into different sections throughout the histology laboratory: in the cut-up room and in the embedding and staining section of the laboratory (excluding immunohistochemistry laboratory). In addition, the biomedical scientist must also fill several worksheets. The initials of the biomedical lab scientists performing the cutup, macro-examination, LID and embedding are written in the histopathology worksheet. The MLS must monitor any changes example in reagents. Any injuries or misshapen occurring in the laboratory must be recorded. Pathologist Role/Result Reporting After staining, the pathologist viewed the slides under the microscope and performed a microscopic examination. The observed results were noted. The microscopic examination results were sent to the secretary who typed the result in the results form. The pathologist then read the results form for any errors and once the result was verified the pathologist authorised the result. Result Entering and Authorisation After the pathologist viewed the slides under the microscope he took the fully written request form to the secretary. The secretary separated the forms into different piles, according to the pathologist. The form was typed in a result form and printed as a result sheet. The written and the print result form were separated into 2 different racks. The report sheet was taken to the respective consultant/pathologist who reviewed the printed result sheet for any mistakes. This includes patient details, clinical details, and examination results. Once the pathologist verified the data written, he used the software to authorise the result. Once the pathologist authorised the result, this was available in the LIS of the cytology and histology laboratories. The CMI system allowed the results to be available to the wards. The result sheet was taken to the secretary where the result form was piled with other results forms according to the pathologist/consultant. Copies were made and sent to ward and patient. Result Issuing (Describe the results form) The results form contains the details of the patient, including the name and surname, address, date of birth, sex and the hospital number. The name of the clinician and the site from where trucut biopsy was taken (SOP) are included. The date the specimen was taken and the date and time it was received are also included. The lab number associated to the specimen is important to be included because besides identifying the patient it can be used for future reference. If the slides or block containing the sections are required they are labelled (including lab number) and stored and easily retrievable. The specimen type and site from where the biopsy was taken, the macroscopic examination and the microscopic examination are all included. The included, in this case â€Å"Benign breast parenchyma of the right breast†. The pathologist and the date and time the result was reported and authorised (by pathologist) and the date and time the result form was printed are also included. Benign Breast Parenchyma: The breast parenchyma forms part of the normal breast tissue. It was reported as benign during microscopy because of few scattered (not clustered) lobules seen in breast sections. Since no atypical features were observed, no special stains or immunohistochemistry staining (example ER or Her-2 stains) were required. It is ideal the patient undergoes regular breast screening. Sample Collection and Specialist Preparation The containers to process routine surgical specimens vary from small to large received in 10% buffered formalin. Very large containers are rare. The container used depends on the size of the specimens. Small specimens such as polyps, prostate scrapings, appendix, trucuts, and trephines are received in small containers containing 10% buffered formalin. Some specimens such as fetus vary in size such as fetus and colon so they received in larger specimens (medium when compared to small containers). Large specimens such as lung, breast, and colon are received in large containers containing 10% buffered formalin. Large specimens require more than one day to be cut. First the specimen is opened and left for an additional day or more for further fixation. The following are types of specimen the laboratory receives that require specialist preparation techniques and the actions taken: Trephine and Bone specimens: – Decalcification with EDTA or formic acid. EDTA is used example for bone marrow trephine and formic acid is used example on bone sternum for one day Figure 4 showing a femur bone undergoing decalcification in EDTA. Infective specimen example with HIV – Over fixation in formalin to kill infective cells* Lymph node –The time of fixation depends on the thickness of the specimen. More time the more the fixative is allowed to penetrate the lymph node.* It is left for two or three days depending on the thickness of the specimen. Over fixation will destroy the surface antigens causing artifacts and a false negative result during immunohistochemistry. Sural nerve: Sent from operation inside a gauze soaked with saline. The request from and case summary are required. The cut up laboratory gives the lab number and send the specimen to the immunohistochemistry laboratory. The tubular sural nerve is wet, and the two ends of the nerve are cut. One end is sent to a pathologist to get an idea of diagnosis and the centre part of the nerve and the other cut end are sent abroad. Muscle: This is received in saline and a lab number is given in the cut up laboratory and then sent to immunohistochemistry laboratory. It is frozen at -70oC and cut by a cryostat at -20oC. The thin sections are then stained with a series of special stains example Oil Red O and with immunohistochemistry stains example myosin. APES coated glass slides are used to prevent the tissue section from sliding off. Imprints: Example lymph node: A slide is pressed on the lymph node and the imprint is sent abroad. The lymph node is then worked normally in formalin. Imprints are used for genetic studies. Liver with no tumour: A series of special stains are performed: PAS – useful if there is a high glycogen content upon staining Reticulin Stain – useful in liver cirrhosis and liver fibrosis Masson’s Trichome Stain – Useful in liver fibrosis Iron Stain – useful for haemosiderosis, haemochromatosis Title: Frozen Sections Aim Performing a macroscopic examination by the pathologist Cut up of the specimen Obtaining sections at -17oC using a micrometer, inside a cryostat Staining the section/s by haematoxylin and eosin stain Performing microscopic examination of the stained section/s by the pathologist Introduction A frozen section is a specific type of biopsy performed during surgery so that a rapid diagnosis of the tissue extracted is made (Brender, Burke Glass, 2011). The tissue can be sectioned and stained in the laboratory for microscopic examination by the pathologist. The surgeon is given flexible intra-operative decision making according to the result given by the pathologist after the rapid processing (KarcioÄÅ ¸lu, 2005, p.121). Principle A surgery is booked and a biopsy is taken and sent to the laboratory. As soon as the fresh specimen arrives in the histology laboratory the pathologist and the selected biomedical scientists start processing the specimen. The pathologist performs a macroscopic examination on the specimen and the observed features are written down by the pathologist. The MLS then start cutting thin sections according to the specimen, using a microtome inside a cryostat at -17oC. The sections are then quickly stained with haematoxylin and eosin stain. In contrary to routine H E, the sections are not passed through xylene and dehydrated down to water. This is because the frozen sections are not embedded in paraffin wax prior staining. Since the stain is very fast there differentiation with acid alcohol is also not performed. After mounting the pathologist checks if the stained slide is satisfactory and after performs a microscopic examination. This lets the surgeon decide what to do next. Materials and Equipment required Cryostat, OCT medium, cryospray, Glass slides, cover slips, disposable pipettes, Procedure 1. Macro-examination The pathologist opens the container/s containing the specimen/s. A macro examination is performed on the specimen/s and the pathologist starts a description so that the medical lab scientist writes on the request form. The description includes the size dimension (length x width x height) in centimeters, the shape of the specimen and if it is soft or hard. The consultant suspects carcinoma and sampling is them performed. 2. Cutting the specimen The consultant cuts piece of the specimen that covers the whole area of the specimen. It is important the most suspicious is included in the segmented section so that the consultant can find and detect the tumour during microscopy. If required, multiple sections can be taken to make a diagnosis. The size cut depends on the size of the sample and tumour. More than one pieces of the specimen can be cut example: two sections from a liver (due to liver transplantation), and from a lymph node attached to the liver. 3. Cryostat The cut specimen/s is/are placed, with the aid of tweezers, in the center of a cryostat object disk containing OCT medium. The cryostat object disk with the tissue is placed on the cryobar (holder) inside the -17oC set cryostat. The tissue is left to settle so it gets cold and this is enhanced by using a cryospray. When the tissue solidifies it is placed onto an object disk holder. The machine is set at 5 µ on the control panel and the block is moved towards the edge of the blade. After making sure it is properly clamped trimming is started. The rotator on the right of the cryostat is turned. The section begins to curl as the block comes in contact with the blade. The section is held down slowly and gently with tweezers and cut until the surface of the tissue is visible. The cryostat is now quickly set at 30 µ (this is the thickness used for most of the specimens in histology). A good section is detached and taken onto a glass slide placed opposite of the block. As the tissue comes in contact with the glass slide it sticks onto it since it melts and adheres to it. The glass slide is immediately in the staining station found adjacent to the cryostat. Haematoxylin and eosin staining is performed. 4. Haematoxylin and Eosin Staining The glass slide with tissue section is f Handling, Storage and Disposal of Samples Handling, Storage and Disposal of Samples Expectations of a Health Care Professional In the histology laboratory all specimens arrive fixed in 10% buffered formalin. In the laboratory, the specimen and the request form are labeled with the same lab number. The specimens are left in the same order the lab number is given and processed. Safety gloves and an apron are worn when processing the specimen. Unfixed specimens received in a plane container are fixed in 10% formalin which is commercially prepared and left for one day to process. This is done if the specimen requires fixation. Certain specimens are an exception to this rule. Lymph nodes are wrapped in gauze when lymphoma is suspected, skin sections for Immunofluorescence due to Pemphigus vulgaris are suspended in saline solution, and frozen sections are not fixed since fresh tissue is sectioned for microscopic examination. Whether the result has been reported or not determines which samples are disposed and stored if the result has been reported or not: After the samples are processed the pieces of the sample that were not inserted in the cassette are placed back inside the respective container. The fixed specimen in the container is refrigerated until the result is reported (figure1). 3 weeks after reporting the result a disposal list is created and the specimens to be disposed are packed inside boxes, labeled and then sent for incineration. Samples such as fetus are kept for burial. Empty containers are left for a week and a half as a quality control and for human errors. In many cases the label on the container shows the type of specimen so the empty containers are left in case verification of type of specimen is required. Blocks and slides are stored permanently inside a storage room. All blocks and slides are carefully and methodically filed so they are available for records or for future reference. As years pass blocks remain unchanged but stains on the slide tend to fade so there is sample deterioration. After cutting, the blocks are placed in numerical order according to the year and placed inside boxes. The first and the last number of the blocks in each box are written on the boxes. All sides and top box are labeled and sealed with tape. Slides are filed in numerical order after the report is issued. Slides are placed in a slide box and the lab number of the first and last slide are written on the box. Effective self-management of time and workload The opening hours for the histology are from 6.00 am till 5.00 pm. The lab is open from Monday till Sunday and time shifts are available so the laboratory remains more open and more service is given to the public. The laboratory does not open during night shift because results in the histology laboratory are not considered urgent. Results must first be seen by the pathologist so no immediate results are required so processing is done during the day. Samples that are considered urgent In histology, specimens are not considered urgent because they have to be viewed by the pathologist results are issued. Frozen sections are considered urgent since the sample must be quickly processed so an intra-operative decision can be taken by the surgeon. Samples can also be considered urgent when a pathologist needs the results in a quick time, due to surgery scheduled on that day or the following day. Career-Long Self Directed Learning What is CPD? CPD stands for Continuing Professional Development, an ongoing free training programme in histopathology including histology and cytology (Institute of biomedical Science, 2011). It is defined as â€Å"The systematic maintenance, improvement and broadening of knowledge and skills, and the development of personal qualities, necessary for the execution of professional and technical duties throughout the practitioner’s working life† (The Chartered Institution of Highways Transportation, 2011). This means that CPD allows the employer to improve and to widen knowledge, quality, competence and skills in his/her profession. What constitutes CPD activity? A CPD is constituted by meetings, short courses, conferences or workshops that are created to inform other members of stuff or even the public. Organization and participation are essential for a successful CPD. It must be transparent, accountable and visible (Fox Fox, 2004, p.182). CPD can be done: To present one’s own research report With the aid of websites, journals, posters, books and other printed media To show something encountered during work, that can be of interest to rest of the workers To make and encourage new procedures and changes Introduce a new course that will be of interesting to the public or workers How does the CPD scheme benefit Pathology employers? A CPD scheme enables the biomedical scientist to develop the necessary knowledge, attitudes, personal effectiveness and skills for his/her professional practice. The employer must identify his/her and their employer’s learning needs. In order to improve patient care the employer must be up to date on facts, new concepts and most importantly on opinion and consensus (The Royal College of Pathologists, 2010). The employer can record activity and document all learning achieved (Academy of Medical Royal Colleges, 2010). All this is done not for only the present but also for future progression (Institute of biomedical Science, 2011). What are the benefits to a biomedical scientist (the employee) participating in the CPD scheme? Keep up to date with current rapid and expanding knowledge (The Royal College of Pathologists, 2010). Increases job satisfaction, productivity and quality of working life (Chen, Chang Yeh, 2006) Acquire new skills for safe and effective practice. This builds up confidence in the employee (Institute of biomedical Science, 2011). Promote professional ideas and new initiatives, increasing job satisfaction (Institute of biomedical Science, 2011). Documentation of all that is learned from the scheme is encouraged (The Royal College of Pathologists, 2010). Benefit from quality control measures (Academy of Medical Royal Colleges, 2010). Encourage reflective practice (Academy of Medical Royal Colleges, 2010). Reduce risk of clinical isolation (The Royal College of Pathologists, 2010). Prepare for new roles example managerial. Employers value employees that undergo continuous CPD since such employees show learning agility (Chen et al., 2006; Royal College of Pathologists, 2010). Maintain a reputation of the biomedical possession and public assurance (The Royal College of Pathologists, 2010). Where is the information relating to CPD displayed in Pathology? When a CPD meeting is going to be held all biomedical scientists are informed through an email. The email is sent to the principle to make sure that all the histology staff knows about the meeting. Vertical Audit Site of origin The trucut samples were taken from the right breast upper outer quadrant (Figure 2) Sample Taking and Description of sample The trucut biopsy is taken after a mammography showed a suspicious result. To diagnose, a trucut biopsy was performed. A trucut (core) biopsy is mostly done to sample tissues from a solid mass or calcium deposits, increasing sensitivity (Youk, Kim, Kim, Lee Oh, 2007). Very small masses or masses that are too deep are sampled using a guiding imaging technique. No scars are left after sampling. It has the advantage of being highly sensitive and specific (Sadler et al., 1994). The biopsy was performed at Mater Dei’s surgical operating theater (SOP) (in the Breast Clinic). The patient was given local anesthetic and left for a few minutes. A 16mm gauge core needle (figure 3) was then used to obtain the tissue samples. The tissues sampled contain tissues from the mass and normal healthy tissues from the breast. The sections sampled contain also provide more diagnostic information than mammography and fine needle aspiration. The samples are larger than FNA therefore results are more accurate (Kasraeian, Allison, Ahlmann, Fedenko Menendez, 2010). The clinician or nurse localised the mass and its boundaries and the mass was then immobilised. The needle was inserted through the skin into the lump and the tissue section was taken. To increase the chances of diagnosis 6 trucut specimens were taken. Their length varied from 9mm to 14 mm. The needle was then detached. The trucut specimens were then introduced into a container contain 10% buffered formalin. The container and the request form where received in the histology laboratory the following day. Specimen reception/numbering A courier brought the trucut specimen for histology processing into the histology laboratory. In the laboratory, the request form which comes together with the specimen was left for a day where registration and processing began. The following day, the receptionist used the HOE system to input data so they can be available only in the laboratory. The ID number of the patient was inputted followed by location the specimen was sampled example BOFFA, the name of the medical lab scientist, and the name of the pathologist/consultant. If available, the macro examination results were also included. A label containing the lab number, the letter on the cassette, the last two digits of the year, and the patient’ name and surname was prepared and printed. The label was prepared to label the slide after staining (in this case only one label was required). Specimen Registration The sample and its respective request form were both labeled with a barcode containing a specific laboratory number. The barcode was stuck on the top of the request form and at the back of the container (without covering any patient’s details). The laboratory number was also written with the aid of marker on top of the tap of the container. The request form was stamped at the top and at the bottom with the date in which it was received in the laboratory. The trucut specimen and the other histological specimens were left one after the other, according to the laboratory number. Specimen processing proceeded in this order. Specimen Processing 1. Cut-Up The trucut specimen was first processed in the laboratory at the cut-up laboratory. The name and surname of the patient and the lab number on the request form and on the specimen container were checked. The trucut biopsies in 10% buffered formalin were taken out from the container, using forceps, on the working bench. A macroscopic examination was performed on the 6 trucut biopsies obtained. Their length ranged in length from 9mm to 14mm. They were all embedded in one printed cassette labeled A1. Blue foam was also placed and the cassette was covered with a medal lid. It was then was placed in eosin with the other specimens. The trucut biopsies were then ready for further laboratory processing. After all specimens were cut, a histopathology worksheet was filled in. This included the case number of the patient, the number of tissues taken (6) , the tissue type (breast trucut), the number of blocks (A1), any comments such as left to fix (not applicable), the name of the pathologist who will examine the slides, and the name of the medical laboratory scientist (in this case who performed the cut up). 2. Tissue Processing (Impregnation) The biopsies were processed in an automated processing machine. This was performed in a closed system for trucut specimens using program A. It is important that the specimen is not larger than 3mm since it will not fit and cannot be cut afterwards. The closed system has 14 baths and it provides pressure, waving, bubbling and rotation to the tissues so the reagent can penetrate better. This is performed overnight, therefore the processor is programmed. When time for embedding is prolonged, the fixation time is prolonged to compensate. The tissues were first fixed in 10% buffered formalin so that the fixation was continued They were then dehydrated in 2 baths of 70% alcohol, in 1 bath 95% alcohol and then in 2 baths of absolute alcohol. The dehydrated sections were then moved into the chloroform and xylene. This step was done for clearing. Chloroform is a carcinogen and it affects the nervous system. The tissues were automatically moved in wax for tissue impregnation. This caused the tissues to harden. A temperature of less than 60oC was necessary because a higher temperature would have affected elasticity of the wax. Fumes go in a waste bottle and charcoal filter is present to filter leak. The tissues were now ready for embedding. 3. Embedding During embedding, the formalin fixed processed tissues are surrounded by wax so a solid paraffin block is obtained. This will enable the medical lab scientist to obtain thin sections from the block so that they can be stained and later viewed by the pathologist. The procedure involved was as follows: The cassette was taken from the processor to the warm compartment of the histocentre. The histocentre is an embedding center that facilitates paraffin embedding. It is equipped with a dispenser, specimen handling tank, warmed embedding moulds, warmed forceps wells and warm plate for orientation of the specimen in the melted paraffin. After checking the wax tank was properly filled, the cold plate and light were switched on. The cold plate helps in transferring of the melted paraffin. The tissue cassette was opened and the number on the labeled cassettes was checked with that on the worksheet entry. A suitable mould compartment corresponding to the size of the tissues in the cassette was chosen. The mould was filled with paraffin wax The tissue was placed at the bottom of the mould, correctly orientated. Incorrect orientation ruins the first section taken The trucuts were placed centrally aligned across long axis of the mould, and not placed at random. Adequate border of embedding medium must surround all sides of the tissue to give maximum cutting support. The mould placed in its cassette was placed on a cold plate and allowed to solidify. The block was scraped along a para trimmer to trim excess wax on surface. Tissues embedded must be perfectly flat to ensure that a complete section will be obtained. 4. Microtomy After the block was trimmed, thin sections were now cut using a microtome. The block was first trimmed to expose the area to be sectioned. A sharp non-rusted blade was used not to cause damage to the tissue by scoring. The microtome was cleaned from staples and sutures that remained to avoid damage of the blade. Microtomy was then started. The tightly screwed blade was checked and adjusted in the correct position. The micrometer gauge was set at a thickness of 18-22 µm. The block was placed inside the block holder of the microtome and secured. The block holder was in parallel to the edge of the blade so a straight ribbon of sections was obtained. The block holder was moved using the couae trimming device until the wax block was almost touching the edge of the blade. The fine trimming rotator device was when the block touched the edge of the blade and trimming of the block was started. Excess wax from the surface of the block was removed until the surface of the tissue was exposed. Debris due to coarse cutting was removed using a Camel hairbrush. The block was then placed on ice to cool giving the tissue and the wax similar consistency. Water absorbed by the tissue, slightly swelling it, so cutting is easier later on. If this does not occur sections tend to crease. The block was reattached to the microtome, leaving the left-hand rotator device. The micrometer gauge was then set at 3 µm. A series of sections forming a ribbon were cut and the first one was not used since it is usually thicker than 3 µm. 4 layers were taken. This means that the after the first section was achieved, the next few layers were ignored and then a second section was taken. The same was done for the third and fourth. This is done so that the pathologist can study many layers from the site taken so that diagnosis is more accurate. The appropriate ribbon section (for all the four sections obtained) was gently transferred into a water bath using forceps. The water bath is set a few degrees below the melting point of the wax. The sections were floated onto a glass slide containing 20% alcohol. The ribbon section was then released on the surface of a water bath (at a temperature less than that of melting point of wax i.e. 60oC. The sections were collected on an APES-coated glass slide. They were placed on near the other. Coated APES facilitates adhesion of the sections onto the glass slide. 4 slides were obtained (a slide for each layer taken). The number of the block was written on the glass slide using a diamond pen and placed on a slide rack. It was dried in an oven at about 60oC for 10 minute. 5. Staining Together with the other blocks from the other specimens the slides were dried and now ready for staining. The routine gold standard stain in histology is Haematoxylin and Eosin stain. This was done in an automated staining machine which followed the regressive method. This allowed overstaining of the tissues and removal excess dye by differentiation. The staining procedure was programmed as followed: The slides were left in the heating station so that all water is removed. The slides were dewaxed in a xylene for 4 minutes. This removed the surrounding wax from the tissues. They were then placed in xylene alcohol for 15 seconds. This started the gradual hydration process and prepared the tissues to be stained by haematoxylin dissolved in an aqueous solvent. The hydration process is followed by 2 baths of absolute alcohol (15 seconds each). The slides were then passed into four baths: 95% alcohol, 70% alcohol, 50% alcohol, and 30% alcohol (15 seconds each). They were then passed for 15 seconds in distilled water since haematoxylin stain is water based. The slides were then passed for 10 minutes in haematoxylin stain. The time inside the haematoxylin bath varies according to the properties of the stain. The prolonged use of the stain increases the time the slides pass in the bath. The slides were rinsed in two baths of distilled water, the first bath for 30 seconds and the second bath for 10 seconds. Differentiation then occurred in acid alcohol for 1 second. This allowed the nucleus to retain the stain and to decrease the pH (acidic) so colour changes to light purple. The slides were rinsed in distilled water for 15 seconds. Bluing occurred in tap water for 5 minutes. This raised the pH so sections became light blue. The slides were then passed into a bath containing distilled water for 15 seconds. The slides were passed in absolute alcohol for 15 minutes for dehydration and because this favours alcoholic eosin staining since it is alcohol based. Counterstaining was performed in a bath containing alcoholic eosin for 3.15 minutes. The time in alcoholic eosin varies according to the properties of the stain. The prolonged use of the stain increases the time the slides pass in the bath. Prolonging time allows the cytoplasm to take up the pink eosin stain. The slides were then dehydrated in four baths of acid alcohol, 15 seconds each. The slides were cleared in xylene alcohol for 15 seconds followed in 2 baths of xylene for 5 minutes each. This helps during mounting since DPX mountant is xylene based. The slides were left in the heating station so that all water is removed. The slides were taken out from the rack and mounted with DPX mountant. Quality Control: Two slides are stained with H E stain using the automated machine in the morning before starting routine staining. Errors in staining such as weak stains and contamination (example of eosin) can be detected so they can be solved. The 4 slides of the patient were therefore well stained since the machine passed QC on that day. Results: Nucleus: Blue Cytoplasm and other eosinophilic structures: Pale pink After processing, the number on the slides was checked with that of the cassette and the block. The slides were then labelled with their respective label. The cassette was placed on top of the slide to see if all the stained sections present on the block were sectioned. All the stained sections agreed with those on the block. Role of the Biomedical Scientist The role of the biomedical scientist is to perform all the above procedures. The medical lab scientists are divided into different sections throughout the histology laboratory: in the cut-up room and in the embedding and staining section of the laboratory (excluding immunohistochemistry laboratory). In addition, the biomedical scientist must also fill several worksheets. The initials of the biomedical lab scientists performing the cutup, macro-examination, LID and embedding are written in the histopathology worksheet. The MLS must monitor any changes example in reagents. Any injuries or misshapen occurring in the laboratory must be recorded. Pathologist Role/Result Reporting After staining, the pathologist viewed the slides under the microscope and performed a microscopic examination. The observed results were noted. The microscopic examination results were sent to the secretary who typed the result in the results form. The pathologist then read the results form for any errors and once the result was verified the pathologist authorised the result. Result Entering and Authorisation After the pathologist viewed the slides under the microscope he took the fully written request form to the secretary. The secretary separated the forms into different piles, according to the pathologist. The form was typed in a result form and printed as a result sheet. The written and the print result form were separated into 2 different racks. The report sheet was taken to the respective consultant/pathologist who reviewed the printed result sheet for any mistakes. This includes patient details, clinical details, and examination results. Once the pathologist verified the data written, he used the software to authorise the result. Once the pathologist authorised the result, this was available in the LIS of the cytology and histology laboratories. The CMI system allowed the results to be available to the wards. The result sheet was taken to the secretary where the result form was piled with other results forms according to the pathologist/consultant. Copies were made and sent to ward and patient. Result Issuing (Describe the results form) The results form contains the details of the patient, including the name and surname, address, date of birth, sex and the hospital number. The name of the clinician and the site from where trucut biopsy was taken (SOP) are included. The date the specimen was taken and the date and time it was received are also included. The lab number associated to the specimen is important to be included because besides identifying the patient it can be used for future reference. If the slides or block containing the sections are required they are labelled (including lab number) and stored and easily retrievable. The specimen type and site from where the biopsy was taken, the macroscopic examination and the microscopic examination are all included. The included, in this case â€Å"Benign breast parenchyma of the right breast†. The pathologist and the date and time the result was reported and authorised (by pathologist) and the date and time the result form was printed are also included. Benign Breast Parenchyma: The breast parenchyma forms part of the normal breast tissue. It was reported as benign during microscopy because of few scattered (not clustered) lobules seen in breast sections. Since no atypical features were observed, no special stains or immunohistochemistry staining (example ER or Her-2 stains) were required. It is ideal the patient undergoes regular breast screening. Sample Collection and Specialist Preparation The containers to process routine surgical specimens vary from small to large received in 10% buffered formalin. Very large containers are rare. The container used depends on the size of the specimens. Small specimens such as polyps, prostate scrapings, appendix, trucuts, and trephines are received in small containers containing 10% buffered formalin. Some specimens such as fetus vary in size such as fetus and colon so they received in larger specimens (medium when compared to small containers). Large specimens such as lung, breast, and colon are received in large containers containing 10% buffered formalin. Large specimens require more than one day to be cut. First the specimen is opened and left for an additional day or more for further fixation. The following are types of specimen the laboratory receives that require specialist preparation techniques and the actions taken: Trephine and Bone specimens: – Decalcification with EDTA or formic acid. EDTA is used example for bone marrow trephine and formic acid is used example on bone sternum for one day Figure 4 showing a femur bone undergoing decalcification in EDTA. Infective specimen example with HIV – Over fixation in formalin to kill infective cells* Lymph node –The time of fixation depends on the thickness of the specimen. More time the more the fixative is allowed to penetrate the lymph node.* It is left for two or three days depending on the thickness of the specimen. Over fixation will destroy the surface antigens causing artifacts and a false negative result during immunohistochemistry. Sural nerve: Sent from operation inside a gauze soaked with saline. The request from and case summary are required. The cut up laboratory gives the lab number and send the specimen to the immunohistochemistry laboratory. The tubular sural nerve is wet, and the two ends of the nerve are cut. One end is sent to a pathologist to get an idea of diagnosis and the centre part of the nerve and the other cut end are sent abroad. Muscle: This is received in saline and a lab number is given in the cut up laboratory and then sent to immunohistochemistry laboratory. It is frozen at -70oC and cut by a cryostat at -20oC. The thin sections are then stained with a series of special stains example Oil Red O and with immunohistochemistry stains example myosin. APES coated glass slides are used to prevent the tissue section from sliding off. Imprints: Example lymph node: A slide is pressed on the lymph node and the imprint is sent abroad. The lymph node is then worked normally in formalin. Imprints are used for genetic studies. Liver with no tumour: A series of special stains are performed: PAS – useful if there is a high glycogen content upon staining Reticulin Stain – useful in liver cirrhosis and liver fibrosis Masson’s Trichome Stain – Useful in liver fibrosis Iron Stain – useful for haemosiderosis, haemochromatosis Title: Frozen Sections Aim Performing a macroscopic examination by the pathologist Cut up of the specimen Obtaining sections at -17oC using a micrometer, inside a cryostat Staining the section/s by haematoxylin and eosin stain Performing microscopic examination of the stained section/s by the pathologist Introduction A frozen section is a specific type of biopsy performed during surgery so that a rapid diagnosis of the tissue extracted is made (Brender, Burke Glass, 2011). The tissue can be sectioned and stained in the laboratory for microscopic examination by the pathologist. The surgeon is given flexible intra-operative decision making according to the result given by the pathologist after the rapid processing (KarcioÄÅ ¸lu, 2005, p.121). Principle A surgery is booked and a biopsy is taken and sent to the laboratory. As soon as the fresh specimen arrives in the histology laboratory the pathologist and the selected biomedical scientists start processing the specimen. The pathologist performs a macroscopic examination on the specimen and the observed features are written down by the pathologist. The MLS then start cutting thin sections according to the specimen, using a microtome inside a cryostat at -17oC. The sections are then quickly stained with haematoxylin and eosin stain. In contrary to routine H E, the sections are not passed through xylene and dehydrated down to water. This is because the frozen sections are not embedded in paraffin wax prior staining. Since the stain is very fast there differentiation with acid alcohol is also not performed. After mounting the pathologist checks if the stained slide is satisfactory and after performs a microscopic examination. This lets the surgeon decide what to do next. Materials and Equipment required Cryostat, OCT medium, cryospray, Glass slides, cover slips, disposable pipettes, Procedure 1. Macro-examination The pathologist opens the container/s containing the specimen/s. A macro examination is performed on the specimen/s and the pathologist starts a description so that the medical lab scientist writes on the request form. The description includes the size dimension (length x width x height) in centimeters, the shape of the specimen and if it is soft or hard. The consultant suspects carcinoma and sampling is them performed. 2. Cutting the specimen The consultant cuts piece of the specimen that covers the whole area of the specimen. It is important the most suspicious is included in the segmented section so that the consultant can find and detect the tumour during microscopy. If required, multiple sections can be taken to make a diagnosis. The size cut depends on the size of the sample and tumour. More than one pieces of the specimen can be cut example: two sections from a liver (due to liver transplantation), and from a lymph node attached to the liver. 3. Cryostat The cut specimen/s is/are placed, with the aid of tweezers, in the center of a cryostat object disk containing OCT medium. The cryostat object disk with the tissue is placed on the cryobar (holder) inside the -17oC set cryostat. The tissue is left to settle so it gets cold and this is enhanced by using a cryospray. When the tissue solidifies it is placed onto an object disk holder. The machine is set at 5 µ on the control panel and the block is moved towards the edge of the blade. After making sure it is properly clamped trimming is started. The rotator on the right of the cryostat is turned. The section begins to curl as the block comes in contact with the blade. The section is held down slowly and gently with tweezers and cut until the surface of the tissue is visible. The cryostat is now quickly set at 30 µ (this is the thickness used for most of the specimens in histology). A good section is detached and taken onto a glass slide placed opposite of the block. As the tissue comes in contact with the glass slide it sticks onto it since it melts and adheres to it. The glass slide is immediately in the staining station found adjacent to the cryostat. Haematoxylin and eosin staining is performed. 4. Haematoxylin and Eosin Staining The glass slide with tissue section is f